Archives: Education

At this point in the scientific writing mini-series, I’m inviting you to pull up a chair (or, for those who have been to my office, a ball) so that I can show you some behind the scenes to my writing process. In the most recent blog, I walked you through how I start to find and organize research articles (on paper and in Zotero). Here, I want to show you how I move from my horizontal, unlined pages of notes to what someone might recognize as a research paper. 

I start my paper by moving my dear mom draft to the top. (I skip all formatting at this step. No title page, no abstract, just words on document. Don’t let formatting concerns slow down your thinking. I also tend to prefer to start writing single spaced because it keeps more ideas in my frame of reference—literally what I can see in my word document.) I revise my statement to my mom, based on the work I did in my note taking and reading. From there, I start writing. 

I usually start with an outline (often a more fleshed out version of the dear mom draft). Once I have a shorthand version of what I think I might want to say in a (tentative) order that I’ve sketched, I just pick a section and start writing. I’m not going to beat around the bush: at this point in my writing process, I write terribly. I write with painstaking difficulty. And yet I write. The point here is to just start. The words that you write now will not (should not!) be the final words in your paper.  

I realize that this is not a helpful statement. However, it’s the best one that I can give you because having something on paper is necessary to really flex the next tool, I want to share with you, a tool I use to revise and improve my paper.

Tool #3: Delete in a psychologically safe way. (Alternative title: Don’t love your words too much.) 

In my own paper (the one I’ve been talking you through for the past few blogs) I had at least 8 drafts. And that doesn’t include all the editing that I did that didn’t meet my qualifications for renaming/calling it a “new draft”.

Across these drafts, I engaged four types of revisions. I’ll briefly describe each, but it’s the fourth that I want to spend a bit more time on. 

• Better words. Scholarly writing should consist of words you know and are comfortable using (e.g., don’t use a thesaurus to substitute in a word you don’t know), but it should also avoid being too casual/conversational (because it’s not a conversation, it’s an intentionally constructed argument)¹. Until the paper is final, you should continuously make small tweaks. Also, the more you write, the more you will find that you have specific idiosyncrasies in your writing to watch out for. For me, it’s not uncommon for me to start 2-4 sentences within two paragraphs with the world “Although.” This is not good writing and I always have to go back and edit this. Although I don’t want to. (See what I did there?) There are lots of good writing guides that include tips on language to use/avoid in professional writing; I have combined two of my favorite short, introductory guides here².  

• More explanation. As I write and edit, I take special care to remember that the reader is not inside my head (lucky them!) and that they don’t necessarily know all the things that I know. It’s really easy to write and assume that your reader knows/is thinking about the same thing as you are. However, good writers will provide all the necessary information for their reader to understand all their words. As I write, I constantly ask myself, “what is necessary knowledge for this sentence to make sense?” Sometimes that means I need to explain a lot more than I originally thought I would, and I spend a lot of time elaborating to explain necessary context. (Cognitive psychologists call this tendency to overstate shared knowledge as the curse of knowledge.) 

• Different organization. One of the things that happens as I think through the actual communication of ideas is that I realize that I need to say things in a different order. Think about good stories: there is not one “right” way to tell it, but there are surely better/worse ways. When we write—when we tell the scientific story of mystery and discovery—we can organize our information and ideas in a way that puts us on either side of the “better” or “worse” categorizations. Sometimes when I write, I craft the same story multiple times, but in different orders, or I talk through the rational for a certain way of organizing the paper with a colleague. Both of these practices give me a big picture framework (“meta”) to think about the flow of my story. It’s not unusual for me to re-organize the order of communicated items when I find that I’m spending a lot of time explaining; sometimes what has happened is that I’m explaining things that depend on a knowledge of what I haven’t yet told the reader about. Reorganizing can be within a sentence, within a paragraph, and—importantly—across the whole paper. Sometimes the best kinds of revisions are moving the last things said to the front³. 

• Deleted content. Okay, friends. This is where we need to talk. Have you ever worked really, really hard on a paper…or a paragraph…or a sentence and felt proud? I have. But the problem with this feeling is that sometimes the most perfectly crafted sentence in this draft just doesn’t work in the next draft. But all that pride and hard work makes it really, really hard to delete that sentence (or word, or phrase, or paragraph…). However, good writers don’t love their words too much.  

I recently listened to Adam Grant interview John Greene⁴ (Adam Grant: a really interesting organizational psychologist; John Greene: a really interesting author of books, including The Fault in Our Stars). One of the things the two discussed was about learning to evaluate your work (and writing) from an external perspective because when we produce words, we are naturally inclined to think they are better than they are. In psychology, there is some great research that shows that when we produce something, we automatically value it higher than when someone else has produced the same thing (this is called the Ikea Effect). So, knowing all of this, how do we write (which I’ve said you just need to do) and then ruthlessly cut what should be deleted later? 

I deal with this in a few ways: 

1. Don’t actually delete things, just move them to a part of the paper called “Things I Cut”, saving them for the draft (e.g., Draft 2.1). After a round of edits, delete the section called “Things I Cut” and resave the draft as Draft 2.2. This way, if you sincerely regret having cut what you did, you can reclaim it later (with just a little bit of work). This is psychologically safe—the words are still there. But when you read and revise Draft 2.2 and realize that you don’t even really miss what you cut your paper will be better for it.  

2. Make edits with track changes (saving pre-change/post-change as different drafts). Track changes is a wonderful way to write collaboratively, but it’s also a great way to keep track of your own changes. If you’ve never used track changes, it’s under the “Review” tab of your word document. It’s easy to do/undo tracked changes and, if you save a million copies (Draft 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4) you can even track your evolution of the use of track changes in a way that makes it easy to recover if you find that your deletion was a terrible mistake. 

What you might notice about both suggestions is that they both involve first distancing yourself from the words you’ve written without deleting them, and then practicing safe deletion (e.g., deletion that you can always go back on later, without having to re-write everything). This makes it psychologically safe, not scary, to delete because it doesn’t feel permanent in the moment of deletion. I remember doing this obsessively with my dissertation. And frankly, my dissertation is the only time I’ve ever gone back and added in something I had previously deleted. Yet, it still feels safer to delete in stages. My final paper doesn’t realize that I’m an obsessive saver and strategic deleter. My final paper just knows it’s better because of all the bad words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs I had the guts to recognize as poorly written and delete.  

Maybe it’s just me, maybe I’m the only one obsessively committed to bad writing (and in need of an intentional intervention to allow myself the freedom to delete it). However, I would bet this is not the case. Do you find it hard to delete what you’ve worked so hard to write? How do you identify parts of your paper you need to delete and how do you do it? 

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¹Recent research shows that papers that use fancy words (compared to “plain” words) are not smarter articles; they are actually less likely to get cited. Bottom line? These articles have a smaller impact than other, better written articles.

²Another one is here. Some of my favorite pieces of advice from this guide include: “Academic writing may seem pompous and convoluted to you. A lot of it is, but the best is not. Do not use words just because they sound academic (especially when you aren’t sure what they really mean).”and“ When you read, pay attention to the different ways that people indicate the relationship of their work to the truth. Words such as indicate, demonstrate, prove (not used outside of mathematics), test (a hypothesis), hypothesize, suggest, assert, question, claim, conclude, argue, discover, define, and assume do have very specific meanings in academic discourse.” and from the appendix: “Vacant Lead Sentences. The first sentences of each section, and the first sentences of each paragraph as well, are the most important sentences. They should state, in plain English, your main points. Then the details can follow.”… “Distinguish between strong and weak statements. Good scientific writing uses qualifiers and caveats sparingly. Qualifiers apply to marginal results, arguable statements, speculations, and potential artifacts. They do not apply to strong findings, well-confirmed statements, or bedrock theory. “Seem”, “appear”, “indicate”, “may”, “suggest” and the like are meaningful verbs. They are not to be used reflexively.”

³There are many ways to conceptualize the order of a paper; different orders serve different purposes. I think, for example, about the movie Memento which starts at the end and works its way back in time. The story is substantially more compelling because of the ordering of events. Most scientific stories won’t be as dramatic as the kind of reverse chronology used in Memento, but you might find that telling this before that really improves the readability of a given paper.

⁴https://www.adamgrant.net/podcast/: Season 4, Episode 18

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

As I mentioned in the last blog, I often start writing a research paper/literature review with a dear mom draft. But a letter to my mother is not going to be accepted for publication (and is not likely going to fulfill the requirements of your class paper, either). So, we can’t stay with this draft for too long. (Though your mother is still welcome to read your final paper, even once you’ve deleted the salutation to her.) This is where my second tool comes in. 

Tool #2: Organize Old School. Find a research paper or two that are closely aligned with your idea and start sketching (literally) the core features from this paper that might be useful to guide your search for other papers.  

For the paper that I was writing on how psychology can influence theological thinking about personhood, I needed a good overview from psychology about persons. The problem is that psychologists don’t really use that word. We say “people” who have “self-concepts” and “personality dispositions” (and so forth). This in and of itself might be interesting to the primary audience of the paper (theologians and philosophers interested in how psychology might challenge, nuance, or advance discussions about personhood). But I knew I didn’t want to write a broad paper on all the different ways that we can define “self” in relation to “person” in psychology. (Someone else can write that paper.) Yet, to start to talk about a psychological view of persons, I would need an article that could give me a good overview of the area.  

In psychology (and I suspect other disciplines, too), there are a number of “Handbooks” that are published as edited volumes, often with lengthy chapters written by different experts on important aspects of the topic or idea of the handbook¹. These are often great places to start for in-depth (even if a bit dense) overviews on a variety of topics. When I stumbled upon the 2018 chapter by Sanaz Talaifar and William Swann on Self and Identity from the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology, I was thrilled. Although this chapter didn’t go into too much detail on any one topic within self and identity, it had the broad strokes (but scholarly) overview I needed to start to frame my ideas. And I did this old school style.  

If you take a look at this page, you see that in the very center I wrote “self”. From there, I have a series of arrows highlighting different components of the self that Talaifar and Swann wrote about. You will also see I made a few notes (bottom left) with some additional references that I wanted to follow up on.  

Although a lot of what is on this page is a truncated view of some of the ways of defining self-discussed in the chapter, but I also made notes of possible connections to consider exploring. For example, there are conscious and non-conscious forms of self and that these are inherently evaluative (see top right). This idea made me wonder whether mindfulness/cognitive-behavior theory is so effective because it can help individuals formalize the automatic, non-conscious, (presumably) negative evaluations of self that they engage². In other places, I make connections to areas of my own expertise, such as the perceived stability of self, something attributed to “psychological essentialism” (from developmental psychology) or to Carol Dweck’s work on mindset (how what we believe about ourselves influences our behavior, which feeds back into our self-perceptions).  

Basically, I find that by writing—with my hand, not on a computer—I have more flexibility to think and make connections. I can draw arrows, make columns, and try to identify crossovers. There is nothing magical about writing this out by hand—doing this old school—but I find it easier to spread the papers out across my desk and think when my hands have gone through the specific motions of writing than when I do the functional equivalent on the computer.  

What you can see in this picture is the end result of my organizing. Each page is numbered and double-sided, flipping up from the long edge. I know this seems like a useless bit of trivia about my process, but I think it’s good to know that this is not how I usually write on paper; nor do I usually use unlined paper. This isn’t how I take notes. When I write on paper like this (this orientation, these columns, some arrows, lots of quotes, unlined paper…), it is a signal to me that I am moving from big ideas (dear mom) to how it might be accomplished (some core citations). These are notes that I take while reading articles on the topic (through database searches and by following promising citations that I read within interesting articles). These are not necessarily original ideas that I am generating, but instead interesting ideas from research papers/literature reviews that I am reading. My job as the author of a new paper is to bring these ideas together (the ones that remain relevant to my topic) in a way that opens dialogue for something new (a fresh view, a new idea, a reconsideration, an extended summary of this research). 

I do this process until my ideas start to feel saturated. Saturation is a bit vague, but basically, I find that I have hit the point of saturation when I stop having new arrows/columns crop out of my notes. When my notes feel more like nuancing and extending specific ideas rather than introducing new concepts. Once I hit this point, usually 4-8 double-sided pages of notes like this, then I turn to a real, paragraph form draft. More on that in the next blog. 

Also, a bonus tool: All along the way of this process, I’m saving papers into Zotero³. By the end of a 2-hour research session where I’m scribbling my notes and reading papers, I might have 45 tabs open (yes, I’m an active tab-opener). It is easy to lose track of where papers are across these tabs (much less the difficulty of finding them at a later date), so while I keep them open for reference in the moment, I also actively save them into a Zotero folder specifically labeled for this research paper project. You can see a snapshot of my “Personhood” paper Zotero folder here (along with a whole slew of other Zotero folders I have). Zotero, or some other reference management system, is like a researcher’s superpower. (I think Spiderman’s uncle was right: with great power comes great responsibility. In the context of research, I would say that with great power (of reference organization) comes great ideas.) 

While you wait, I want to know: how do you organize your ideas and references? 

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¹For example, see a list of psychology handbooks published by the American Psychological Association and Cambridge University Press, though other publishers also produce high quality handbooks.

²That is, mindfulness can teach us to identify a thought in our head, but separate ourselves—literally our self—from that thought. I can have a thought, “I’m worthless” and I can evaluate that thought “hrm, I just had a thought that I’m worthless” without becoming that thought or accepting it as true “That was a thought I had, and it wasn’t true.” If you want to know more about this, in particular, I would recommend this book. Ignore the cheesy title and very self-helpy cover; it represents good scholarship and I have found the tools very helpful.

³Check out this CSHB resource page for more on Zotero and other tools for writing research papers.

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

Dear Mom, 

I’m writing a paper about how to write a paper. It’s a really cool topic because when you learn how to write effectively, people engage your ideas and data more; ideas and data can change the world. 

As I said in previous blogs in this series—blogs that cover what scientific writing is, two characteristics of good writers, the structure of a scientific paper, and the oh-so-important literature review—writing well involves understanding some big picture issues (e.g., why write and how to approach the task of writing) but big pictures don’t always translate into words-on-paper. So, in this blog, I want to share some tangible “this is what I do” nuts and bolts of the writing process.  

My point in sharing is not to say “this is the correct way to write,” but to show you some tools that you might find useful (in whole or in part, or even just to inspire you to come up with an even better method). As I share bits of my process, I am mindful that there are likely inefficiencies and weird things I do that might not actually improve my thinking. As I continue to grow in my writing skill, my process will probably change. The whole point of this blog is to provide potential scaffolds that invite you into that same process of growth. I’m going to do that by showing you my actual notes and some drafts with commentary for a recent literature review I wrote, a paper that published in September 2021. This paper is titled A tale of two perspectives: How psychology and neuroscience contribute to understanding personhood. 

To start, I want to address the opening of this blog: Dear Mom. Why, you might be wondering, do I have this random letter to my mother at the beginning of this blog? To answer that question, I will turn to the first tool in my writing process. 

Tool #1: Start writing. Break through any writers blocks by telling your mother about your paper…in your paper.  

My mom is a wonderful human being. She is a longtime educator and creator of things. In my educational adventure through high school, I’m certain that my mom read each and every paper I wrote. And each and every paper was returned decorated with red ink (the marks and critiques of a loving mother helping her daughter think better and reminding her that sometimes spell check doesn’t catch homophones-doh!). With this as a background, I picked up a habit in graduate school (origin unknown) to break writer’s block with what I call a dear mom draft. 

I find that sometimes the most challenging part of writing is just starting. You stare at a blank word document on your computer, suddenly remembering that you haven’t organized your cheese drawer in the fridge or that you don’t remember when you dusted your ceiling fan last or that you’ve always been meaning to sort the paper clips in your desk drawer (you know, to make your work—like writing this paper—easier in the future). And gosh, you’re hungry now. Let’s take a break. All of these (suddenly important) tasks pop into your mind because they seem somehow easier than the unknown answer to “what am I going to write in this paper?!” So, the trick that I learned to get going was to start a paper with a salutation (I chose my mom, you can choose anyone you like) and a few sentences about what you think this paper might be about.  

In May 2021, I was in that exact position I described above (the answer is that I have never dusted my ceiling fans. For shame.) I had agreed to write a paper with the general parameters of “a paper about how psychology can advance philosophy/theology around topics of personhood.” I was a bit paralyzed. How could I take such a broad topic and turn it into a paper that someone might want to read (and, importantly, a paper that someone may find useful)? I don’t suffer the illusion that my paper will change the world, but it’s possible that someone who reads it might have ideas that can change the world. Words and ideas matter—but we have to start by, well, starting. But how? 

Let me show you an example of how I got started: the dear mom draft.  

None of this actually made it into my paper. That wasn’t really the point. But my first drafts started with this narrative. The point wasn’t that these words were going to be final words; the point was to think about what I might want to say in this paper in a way that I could communicate it to an educated other (my intended audience). These few sentences served two primary purposes: 

1. They got words on paper. It’s easier to edit when there is something there. And sometimes, once you start, you get momentum (and thus more words to edit and help you think). 

2. They helped me start the process of clarifying what the purpose of my paper was. What did I want my reader to know? You can already start to see some outlines here: I want to tell them about research in developmental psychology and I want to tell them about research in neuroscience. I didn’t have all that research found and organized yet, but by having this protracted (unedited, stream of conscious) idea on paper, I could start my search for the research that I would use in my paper. (Remember, in science writing, citations are evidence.) 

Importantly, at the point of my dear mom draft, I was already vaguely familiar with the research I intended to search for; I knew a bit about what the research in developmental psychology and neuroscience would say. (Though, rest assured, I absolutely learned some new things that shaped the direction of my paper, too!) If you know nothing about anything that might be relevant to your topic, you need to do some reading before you can even start to tell your mom what you want to talk about. For a class, this pre-work might be re-reading the textbook and the assigned reading. Re-reading the assigned material on the broad topic you will be exploring will serve as the foundation of your thinking about what you might want to say. It will be enough to get your dear mom draft going, which is the beginning of your real research (i.e., finding, reading, and synthesizing original research into your paper).  

Stay tuned for our next blog, where I show you how I move from dear mom to first draft. In the meantime, have you ever written something like a dear mom draft? What do you think of the idea? I’d love to know!  

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

In my previous blogs in this series on scientific writing, I have covered what scientific writing is, the characteristics good writers develop, and the basic structure/purpose of different sections of a scientific paper. This is all well and good (well, at least I think it is….and you’re still here, so I’m hoping you do too), but I’ll venture that at least one of you is thinking, “but how does this apply to the paper I have to write this semester?” (I’m looking at you, Psy 328 students.) In this blog and the next, I want to focus on a specific kind of science writing, the kind that most of you will encounter as your run of the mill “research paper/literature review assignment.” Today, I will focus on conceptualizing a literature review; in the next post I will pull back the curtain on a recent literature review I wrote and walk you through my process. 

The Literature Review 

A literature review is a summary and synthesis of what other researchers have studied and found about a specific topic. This differs in important ways from the introduction-methods-results-discussion format I discussed previously. Literature reviews bring together different programs of research or theories or they synthesize research in a way that suggests new ideas or theories. The goals of a literature review will vary as a function of the intended audience; effective writers (of all stripes, not just science writers) know who their audience is, and they communicate directly to them, an issue I take up in my next post. Literature reviews are a key staple of any body of research (or, thinking in the metaphor from my last blog, a section of tapestry) because they provide an overview of that part of the tapestry.  

Literature reviews do not have all the sections of the APA style paper but share the end goal of describing how bits of the tapestry (our knowledge, as informed by emerging and ongoing research and analysis) fit together. Literature reviews are a type of research papers without original data and are thus, at their core, conceptual. To write an effective literature review it is vital to know what you want to say and bring in appropriate evidence (other people’s research) to build your case. A literature review isn’t driven by or organized around a specific set of data but rather the idea(s) of the writer. When writing a literature review, a very common type of paper assignment in college, you need to be able to clearly answer the questions: 

• Why would someone read this paper/what should they know/think when they are finished?  
• What is the thing that you have to tell them?  

As you will see when I share my process in the next blog, I find the process of writing to be utterly instrumental in the development of how I answer these important literature review questions. If you don’t have a clear idea of what you want your reader to know when you start writing, you should, at minimum, know after numerous rounds of revision. By the time your paper is finished you should be able to share in a sentence or two the “big picture idea” that your paper is engaging. (This is why you should always, always (!) write your abstract last. If you write your abstract first, you should have to re-write it to reflect the final organization which will change through the process of writing and revision.) If you can’t summarize your big idea in a few sentences (the famed “elevator pitch”), I would question whether you have a clear and focused idea of what your paper is about.  

Keep in mind that your words-on-paper are the only access that your reader has to your thoughts. No matter how brilliant your thoughts are, if your reader can’t fully discern them from your words-on-paper, your thoughts will be unable to make the desired impact. For me, my revision process is, in part, how I decide what I want to say (i.e., do I need to explain this more? This bit of information is interesting, but does it enhance my story or is it tangential to it?). My revision process also helps me focus on whether I am organizing my thoughts in a way that achieves my goals (e.g., communicates my ideas and thoughts).  

Once you know what you want to say in a literature review, remember that the research needs to be presented in a way that tells a story, the story of the thing you want your reader to know. If you are telling a story, that means that every citation, idea, or theory you include has a purpose—to advance, nuance, enrich—the storyline. Citations are the evidence of the thing you have said. Each sentence should contribute to the developing plotline of discovery you are leading your reader on. 

Take, as an example, a literature review on “eyewitness testimony.” This is a massive topic with lots of research exploring different aspects of eyewitness testimony. If you were to go to google scholar or the library database and search “eyewitness testimony” you will get a ton of sources exploring the many dimensions of eyewitness testimony. You might find some about how it is used in a courtroom, how race, gender, and age influence accuracy, and a whole host of memory biases that we need to consider. Yet, the quantity of sources says nothing about whether these sources should all be grouped together in this paper that you are writing. Just selecting a few and talking about them consecutively does not tell a good story. Imagine a paper that looked like an exploded paintball on the diagram below; the splatter (each citation/idea) is random, only loosely connected to the (very broad) concept of “eyewitness testimony.” As the splatter is random, so is this kind of paper.   

What you want to do in any literature review is have a clear idea of your focus (for example, where the yellow arrow is pointed in the diagram: a paper on how race, gender, and age interact with memory biases to influence eyewitness testimony). In this example, such a focus will help you determine to include only the research on race, gender and age on eyewitness testimony that overlaps with research on memory bias. There will be a lot of research on race, gender, and age as well as memory biases in eyewitness testimony, but when you have clarified that you are focusing on where they meet, it will help you know when to exclude interesting research that is not laser focused on your relevant topic. Such a focus is a really important first step (one that can emerge in the organization and revision of the paper as writing can refine the focus), but keep in mind that you will still need to organize the ideas in a way that is coherent, logical, and persuasive (more on that in the next blog). 

As I will tell my students: there needs to be some reason to include all of the citations, ideas and theories in your paper. Why are they together in these pages? To answer this question, you need to have a clear focus of what your paper is about and what it might be related to, but also what it is not about. This kind of clarity will guide the sources and ideas that you include as part of your discussion and the choice to not include one. The papers and ideas in your paper should hang together to help guide your reader to your ultimate conclusion: an understanding of whatever the thing is that you want your reader to know.  

Sneak Peek 

As a bit of a sneak peak, I’ll tell you that in the next blog, I plan to pull back the curtain on a paper I wrote just this year. The paper, titled A tale of two perspectives: How psychology and neuroscience contribute to understanding personhood, is one that I started thinking about in January, 2021. I did all the reading and writing for the paper, start to submission, in the month of May, 2021. (A timeline not too unlike a typical semester paper assignment.) I have since learned that this paper was accepted for publication (after some formatting fixes and a required reduction in word count)¹. In the next post, I’ll guide you through my process by sharing my notes and behind-the-scenes revisions with commentary on my process. My goal is to share some nuts and bolts for how I go from an idea-in-head and a stack of articles to a science story. I’ll address the question of “do these ideas hang together, given my audience?” mentioned above and tackle the question of “where (and how) do I start?”   

Although I want you to stay tuned, I’d also like to hear from you: do you like writing literature reviews? Why or why not? What is the hardest part for you? Share your thoughts below.  

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¹I will add a link to the paper here once it is finally published (a process that usually takes longer than we think it should…).

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

In two previous posts (which you should read first!), I described introduced the idea of science writing as storytelling, and I explored two traits of effective writers. In this blog, I want to dive a bit deeper into the structure of scientific papers, how scientific papers document evidence that can contribute to our emerging understanding of “how the world works” (the goal of science). I will do this by discussing the purpose of different sections of an APA style paper¹.  

The Structure of Scientific Writing 

Introduction: The first part of a scientific paper is called an introduction (though the label may not appear on the paper itself). The introduction sets the stage for the science story. Here, the writer needs to frame the story by drawing from and connecting previous theory and research to the specific research in the paper. The framing of the story will be relatively big, but throughout the introduction the writer will consistently narrow in on the specific thread of the story that they are going to weave with their study.  

I like to think of the introduction as an upside-down triangle. The beginning of the intro lays out the big ideas: what is at stake and what ideas are on the table. But, as the reader (and writer) progresses through the introduction, the big ideas need to be narrowed to the realm of hypothesis. The whole science story (our discovery and construction of the way the world works) is like a giant tapestry in-progress. The whole section of the tapestry, when you step back to look at it, is the top of the upside-down triangle. (The WHOLE tapestry is the whole of human knowledge. Imagine zooming into a relatively large section of the tapestry where you can still see images and chunks of the tapestry’s story, without seeing individual threads. This section is the “whole” tapestry that the top of the upside-down triangle shows.) But individual research studies can’t deal with the whole tapestry, so throughout the introduction the reader starts to look closer at a specific part of the tapestry that is under construction. There are lots of threads here. The hypotheses of the research study, presented at/near the end of the introduction, is a zoomed-in view of one (maybe two) of these threads. The research is going to pull on these threads to see if they fit this way or that way. The individual research study is at this zoomed-in view, but the view itself won’t be meaningful without the larger picture. 

In an attempt to be explicit about my metaphors², the individual threads of the hypotheses are the very bottom point of the upside-down triangle where the plotline of the story is unfolding (scientific plot = discovery).  

In this way, the introduction absolutely has the flavor of a plot. You first set the scene, then you carefully guide your reader to pay attention to some (but not all) of the scene³. Importantly, the introduction also sets the stage for the drama of the plot, as in, “Look at all these things we know and, yet, we still cannot say with certainty how this thread fits into the tapestry. This is why my research study is needed.” 

Method: The method section is critical in the scientific story because this is where the writer starts to lay out their process for pulling the strings of the tapestry. When researchers clearly describe how they collected their data, who provided the data (in the case of human sciences), when the data were collected (etc.), then the readers have sufficient description of the process to evaluate the data that these methods and participants produced⁴.  

One of the things that makes psychology and the other social sciences so interesting (and difficult) is that the subject matter—people—are really complex. There are so many influences on human thinking and behavior, more influences than could ever be fully accounted for in any individual research study. Thus, the goal is not to measure absolutely everything, but to measure the most important things and to account for influences on how the data are produced and understood. The introduction will have brought all of these relevant influences on the table; here the science story slows down in order to really lay out the details of the process. If we return to the upside-down triangle/tapestry metaphor, the method and results sections are smaller still, zooming in to the smallest point of that triangle, examining the tapestry at the level of the thread content and composition of this particular section of the tapestry.  

If this individual research study is going to be added to the tapestry that the science story is a part of, it needs to be clear how and why the strings of the tapestry were pulled and prodded the way they were. 

 Results: The results section is where the author presents their scientific story in the language of math (and statistics)⁵. Results sections should be written without interpretation. They are designed to be a straightforward depiction of the statistical procedures and ensuing numbers. For example, “A 2 (book vs. video) by 2 (male vs. female) analysis of variance was conducted…” describes an analytic method that compared two conditions (book and video) across two genders (male and female), both of which are being treated as independent variables. The test will look at how males and females in the separate conditions of book or video scored on some dependent variable (unnamed in this example). The report would also provide the inferential statistics (e.g., t-test or, in the case of an ANOVA an F-statistic) and p-value. Let’s say that there was a statistically significant difference (i.e., p < .05) between how people responded to book versus video in this fictitious example⁶, the author would simply note that in a statistics sentence without interpreting the meaning of such a finding (e.g., “When exposed to books, problem-solving was higher (M = 5.67, SD = 1.21) than when exposed to videos (M = 2.12, SD = .34), F(1, 34) = 5.93, p < .05.)⁷ The implications of the higher problem solving scores for books compared to videos would not be interpreted here. 

Discussion: The discussion section starts with a rephrase of the results in plain English (or whatever language the paper is being written in). Take all the t-tests, ANOVAs, and multiple regressions and translate them here, omitting the statistical language. So, we might say, “Problem solving improved after exposure to books compared to videos” as a straightforward rephrase of the (fictional) test reported above. In one or two paragraphs, the key findings from the results section will be presented. This serves a few purposes. First, it helps your reader through the weeds of the analyses (especially those who skimmed it). Second, it prepares your discussion by providing a key opportunity to frame it. Throughout the discussion, the key findings will be discussed beyond what they are and extended to what they mean. Really, the discussion is the reversal of the triangle from the introduction section. The discussion turns the whole paper into an hourglass shape⁸. 

In the discussion, the key ideas introduced in the introduction get connected to the specific findings. Implications for the broader tapestry of the science story are addressed here. This is where the writer draws final connections and communicates the importance of this research story. When we know that these strings of the tapestry do that, what does that mean? How does (if it does) change our understanding of the neighboring tapestry strings? Do we have to rethink our reinterpretation of the tapestry at all, because of these findings? Does it extend our understanding in any way? Any one research paper won’t do all these things, but it will do something. This is where the writer helps the reader understand what, exactly, has been done in this paper. 

Importantly, the discussion section also highlights what this research does not do. Every study has limits and leaves open questions (either new questions or questions that remain unanswered or unclear). This section is not a trivial place to say, “we should have had a larger sample”, but a place to really wrestle with what we do and don’t know about our science story. It is also a great place to set up the next science story to help us figure out this particularly tricky part of the tapestry. Remember that good science writers are interested in improvement (growth mindset) and are genuinely curious about why things work the way they do. This means that they will not manufacture limitations where they do not exist, nor will they minimize limitations that do exist. 

The Beautiful Tapestry 

In this blog, I intended to provide a big picture framework for an individual paper; what the goals of the various paper elements are and how to think about their structure. I used the metaphor of scientific writing as the vehicle by which individual scientific studies weave small bits of a (very large) tapestry of knowledge. This is an important start, but still a bit vague on some of the details. (How do you weave?!) In blogs to com, I’ll start to unpack some specific things that I do in my own writing. It is my hope that by walking you through my example you will have the opportunity to duplicate, modify, or generate new practices that will help you develop into a better writer. 

For now, I want to hear from you: what parts of writing do you enjoy the most? What do you most loathe? Leave a comment below! 

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¹An “APA Style Paper” is a paper that is constructed according to the guidelines published by the American Psychological Association. APA style refers to the specific conventions (e.g., how to format citations) and to a style of writing. Here, I am not particularly interested in the formatting issues, but more so in the goals of the writing. These goals are shared across many scientific disciplines, even if the specific formatting style varies.

²As all members of my family, and many of my students, will attest, metaphors, idioms, and other similar language mechanisms are not my strong suit. And yet, here I am, working on my weaknesses…

³One important difference between a well-written fiction story and a scientific story is that fiction is exciting because of what is left out, what is left to the readers’ imagination. Fiction authors take advantage of allowing their readers to fill in the blanks in powerful and (often) personal ways. Science stories do not leave these same kinds of blanks. Although scientific stories have to be selective about what is included (thereby omitting some details), the goal is not to have readers fill in the blanks. One of the functions of peer-review is to ensure that important parts of the scene have not been ignored or omitted. The goal is for readers to clearly see all that is involved. Where there may be “fill-in-the-blanks” ideas, science stories will include citations for their readers to complete those omissions in a way that is consistent with previous research.

⁴Remember from Part 1: science stories are built on verifiable and compelling evidence. “Trust me, I’m a doctor” just won’t work.

⁵There are, of course, exceptions to this rule (i.e., qualitative research). However, the language of the results does change to reflect the actual analysis of the data, whatever those data are like.

⁶To connect this to methods language: a finding that there was a difference in books vs. videos on the dependent variable would be an example of a main effect; we could say that there is a main effect of media (book vs. video) on the dependent variable.

⁷The numbers in this example statistic sentence are totally made up. However, from this sentence the reader can discern important information about the main effect of the independent variable (book vs. video) on the dependent variable (problem-solving). How these variables were operationalized and measured would have been described in the method section.

⁸See the image about science papers and hourglasses here: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Framing-a-scientific-paper-The-structure-of-a-paper-mirrors-that-of-an-hourglass_fig1_307014555 If you are feeling ambitious, read the paper that it comes from, also available at this link.

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

When I was in high school, I read The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde¹. Since it was published in 1891, I’m just going to assume that what I’ll say here about the novel doesn’t require a spoiler alert. (But, alas, if you want to avoid such a spoiler, kindly skip to the next paragraph now.) What I loved about the novel was the extreme (and incredible) juxtaposition between this dashing young man and the gruesome portrait that hid his true inner reality. He was morally and psychologically bankrupt, a secret held by his portrait. On the inside, he was empty.  

Why bring up such a tale in a blog with the subtitle, scientific writing – part 2, you ask? In the paragraphs that follow, I want to argue that writing well, especially writing of the scientific variety, requires the development of certain internal characteristics. It’s not enough to have a Dorian Gray kind of face. We need to do some inner work to effectively engage scientific writing. That is what this post is about.  

Before I lose you on the thought, “this doesn’t apply to me because I’m not a scientist! I don’t need scientific writing!”, let me address this erroneous thought head on. In your classes you are engaging scientific work and talking about it, sometimes in written form. That is scientific writing. Many of you will continue to engage these primary resources in future careers. However, even those of you who don’t: the practice of clearly delineating and communicating evidence, at the core of scientific writing, is also key to communication in general. The specific formats and expectations about details (APA style, for example) may vary, but the practice of clear thinking and information storytelling—this is something you will use well beyond your classroom years. As such, in this and future blogs, when I talk about you, dear reader, as a “scientific writer,” this is not a mistake. This is for you.  

Now, back to the rodeo. 

Developing the Disposition of a Scientific Writer 

As a graduate student, I remember co-authoring a manuscript that would become my first peer-reviewed paper published in the well-respected journal Child Development. I remember the excitement of feeling like I had something to contribute, something to say. I had an emotional connection with my paper. It—and by proxy I—was awesome. 

And then came peer review. 

The peer review for this paper was critical and hard to digest. But in the lengthy process of revision (which took multiple rounds, each with new critical peer review comments), I started to learn some valuable lessons, lessons that I want to share with you today. Reflecting on my experiences with peer review that started in graduate school, I have learned that scientific writing is more effective when I, as the writer, am committed to the ongoing development of a growth mindset and a disposition of curiosity. I believe that good scientific writers share these traits, traits that can—good news—be learned.  

Good Scientific Writers have a Growth Mindset 

Elsewhere in the CSHB blog archives there are discussions on the growth mindset. Mindset is an idea developed by Dr. Carol Dweck, a developmental psychologist at Stanford University. She argues that there are different ways of thinking about traits such as intelligence. We can consider intelligence (and intellectual capacity) to be relatively fixed—stable and enduring across the lifespan—or malleable—able to be grown and developed with effort. These beliefs about intelligence being fixed or malleable represent two ends of a continuum, with people existing at and between the extremes.  

Although Dweck’s work started with intellectual ability, it has expanded to include beliefs about traits like artistic skill, athletic ability, business acumen/leadership, relational capacity, etc. It just makes sense that we could also talk about our beliefs about writing ability. Let’s take a quick check on your beliefs: do you believe that, with practice, feedback (including criticism!), and more practice (and criticism) that you could get better at writing? Or, do you think that you are, more or less, as good as you are going to be? Think about the last paper you wrote: how many times did you read and revise it? Do you think the revision process valuable? Did you seek out critical feedback? When your professor made a suggestion, what kind of reaction did you have? I would bet that students who believe that practice and feedback are a valuable part of improving their writing abilities will spend more time revising, visiting the University Writing Center, and meeting with their professor to review drafts. These efforts are not just because they want a good grade, but because they believe these behaviors are an important part of the process of their writing skill development. This is consistent with a growth-oriented mindset, the belief that effort is directly related to skill growth and associated outcomes. What Dweck’s work shows, in general, is that the belief that you can develop and improve in an ability, like writing, leads you to behave in a way that makes it so, for example by practicing, revising, and seeking out feedback for improvement.  

Moreover, an important feature of the growth mindset is the belief that you are not your work². The work that you produce reflects your effort, sure, but a critical comment (or comments—plural!) is not an inditement of you. Rather, it is feedback about your process, effort, or something that led to the work. This feedback is all a part of the learning and growing process. In a podcast on receiving critical feedback well, Mellody Hobson said something that really made me think: she argued that critical feedback is a gift, and not a right. When someone gives you feedback, no matter how hard it is to hear, it is because they love and care for you enough to give it to you. That, she says, is an opportunity that should not be squandered.  

When I receive critical peer review today—and I do!—instead of immediately succumbing to a negative emotional reaction, I reframe the feedback. This peer reviewer at least thought enough of my paper to take the time to read it and provide critical feedback. Their points are worth wrestling with. Even when I don’t incorporate the changes suggested by the peer reviewer, my paper is always better because I had to really think through why they thought what they did, what that means for my argument, and how I can strengthen what I have to say/how I’m saying it. This response is only possible when I don’t take the criticism personal, but instead use it as an opportunity to develop my ability to write more clearly, more persuasively, and more effectively. A growth mindset says that engaging feedback—especially critical feedback—is central to the development of writing well. 

Good Scientific Writers are Curious 

Although there are likely many more qualities of good scientific writers, the second I want to share here is that good scientific writers are curious. Curiosity is a core feature of good scientists (e.g., “why does the world work this way? What explains that phenomenon?), but it is also reflected in good scientific writing.  

Curiosity is reflected in a comprehensive literature review, a deep and developing understanding of all the relevant information to the present question. Curiosity is reflected in creative and clear methods, documented thoroughly to allow for an open and honest appraisal from others. Curiosity is also reflected in an openness to the data. When we, as researchers, look at data, we have our own ideas about why they are the way they are. These ideas come from a number of sources, including our command of the scientific literature and our own worldviews and experiences. Curiosity allows individuals to say, “this is how I see it,” without getting defensive when someone else says, “yes, but have you thought of this possibility?” That other possibility is just that—a possibility. For the curious, possibilities are exciting³.  

Back to Dorian 

Although the reading of Dorian Gray has stuck with me, high school was also many (too many) years ago. There are details of the story that I don’t remember. And still, I feel confident that Dorian Gray would not have been an effective science storyteller, as he lacked a growth mindset and curiosity (along with a bunch of other important traits). Of course, as a bit of an optimist, I think that even Gray could have, with the right motivation and mentorship, learned these skills. Just like I’m learning them and like I hope you will. It will benefit your writing—and so much more.  

I have more to say on scientific writing—and say I will. If you made it this far, I would love to hear from you: what do you find is your biggest barrier to writing well? Do these characteristics of good scientific writers resonate with you? What else might you consider adding to that list? Let me know with a comment below and stay tuned—there is more to come on writing well. 

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¹I have not seen the movie, so I can’t comment except to say, rooted in my own deep (non-scientific) convictions, the book is better.

²This is a great, short video introduction to the idea of mindset: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUWn_TJTrnU. Pay special attention to the commentary on Jay and Anne’s work, and how that commentary (i.e., critical feedback) is interpreted.

³Here is a helpful guide for giving and receiving criticism in a way that is helpful: https://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2021/03/science-relies-constructive-criticism-here-s-how-keep-it-useful-and-respectful

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

My pastor has the most creative sermon titles. There is a game that we play at the end-of-year volunteers’ party which(inevitably) includes a question to try to spot the fake sermon title among all the real ones. It is next level difficult. It is in that vein that I label this blog, My Little Pony Dungeons and Dragons though, really, this blog is not about that. Not directly. Intrigued? Read on.

Now that you are (mildly) intrigued, I’ll be honest with you: I have played an adapted form of Dungeons and Dragons with My Little Ponies trying to save the world through the power of friendship. Before you think I’m weird(er than you already know me to be), let me contextualize this as a game that my whole family plays on game night. In addition to the art (see the excellent pony made by my daughter, 4 years old at the time), the math (constantly adding and subtracting dice of various numbers), and the time together, there is story. That is really what this blog is about: story.

Google defines story, in part, in reference to the plot of a thing, what it’s really about. Although our minds might immediately travel to fiction—or ponies protecting the world—in my work as a researcher I find it helpful to think about scientific writing as a particular kind of storytelling. Over the next few blog posts, I tackle scientific writing as story¹. (Can you see why I lead with ponies and dragons now? In theory, it has led you read at least this far.)

In this post, I want to introduce you to the basic premise of scientific writing. In future posts, I will explore how to approach the (sometimes daunting) task of writing well and I will frame some ideas around the different components in a scientific paper. If you’re lucky (or, as my dad would say, “a glutton for punishment”), I may even write a blog with some nitty gritty details, sharing examples from a recent paper I wrote (and re-wrote…and re-wrote again).

What is Scientific Writing?

Although you know what writing is, is anything changed by adding “scientific” as an adjective before it? To answer this question, we need to think about science. Science is the study of the natural world. Science describes how things are, explores how/why things work the way they do, and makes predictions about how things might/could/would work, given what we know. Science uses systematic observation—testing, observing, measuring things in the world in strategic and systematic ways—to draw conclusions about the world². There are many (many!) different empirical methods in science, but they share the common feature of systematic measurement and observation to acquire knowledge. Moreover, science is democratic and cumulative, meaning that debating conclusions based on (and building from) previous research in a public forum is inherent in how science works. The scientific community requires that statements about “the way things are/work” be backed up with verifiable and compelling evidence³.

By this understanding of science, then, scientific writing is the formal documentation of the scientific story with discovery as the core plotline. Scientific writing is how scientists document the verifiable and compelling evidence gathered by members of the scientific community to tell the story about how the world (and the people in it) work. Done well, scientific writing communicates the mystique and intrigue of discovery within the natural world⁴.

When I conduct a research study, I write it up in a manuscript which is submitted to a journal. The journal will send this manuscript to 2 or 3 reviewers (who are blind to my identity). This process of peer-review ensures that my paper—this piece of scientific writing—is of sufficient quality and caliber to contribute to science and warrant publication. Part of my job in writing the story is to tell the reader what they need to know in a logical, connected way⁵. (Remember, I can’t just write “this is how the world works: believe me, I’m cool; I play pony-dragons.” I have to, in my paper, document the whole process of my research so that when I ultimately claim that “this is how the world works”, my reader understands how my evidence—the research—led to that conclusion.)

So, in many ways, scientific writing is like all good writing; it differs in its content (an explication of empirically demonstrated evidence), but it is rooted in narratives of discovery.

This narrative of discovery has some formalized sections (i.e., the introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections of an APA paper). However, before we talk about these sections we need to talk about the scientific story writer. Before any words are on (digital) paper, it’s important for a scientific story writer to start with a helpful orientation to the process of writing, an orientation that is highly influential for writing successfully.

While you wait for part 2 (perhaps rolling up your own MLP dungeons and dragons character), I’d like to know: what kinds of experiences have you had with science writing? When I say “science writing,” what comes to mind/what assumptions do you have about what it is/isn’t?

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¹As I see it, writing on “writing well” is one of the most daunting topics I could choose. There are many who have written on this, and many who have written on this better than I will do here. Part of the point that I aim to make is that writing is a skill that is developed. That means that, like you, I am in development. However, if I waited until I could communicate about scientific writing skill development perfectly, then this blog would never be written and any potential benefit of this communication, imperfect as it may be, would be lost. As I will encourage you to do: start where you are and commit to developing, uncomfortable as it may be. Your product won’t be perfect, but perfect isn’t a requirement for progress. In writing this blog for you and I’m practicing what I’m preaching.

²Although many students might not immediately associate “psychology” with “science,” it should be clear that psychology is a science, even if it doesn’t share all the methods of natural sciences. That it would have different methods makes sense because it has different a subject matter; surely we can agree that we can (and should) study cells differently than human persons (even if the human persons are made up of cells).

³A very easy introduction to what science is, can be found here. If you are interested specifically in thinking about how psychological science works and fits into science, you can check out this introduction.

⁴Despite common assumptions, science is not a list of facts about the world. Science includes facts, but it not mainly a compilation of them. As such, effective scientific writing will communicate the mystique and intrigue of discovery, not just consolidate a list of findings.

⁵This has implications for the actual process of organization and writing that I will address in a future post. My metaphor hear is about maps and directions, but I’ll leave it be for now.

If you found this blog helpful, check out the overview of the whole series here, so that you can find more useful information to develop your writing.

A few months back, I decided to do something crazy. No, I didn’t sky dive (I’ve done that already). No, I didn’t wander out of a Beijing airport at 2am, totally jetlagged and confused, hoping I understood what I had been told to do (I’ve done that too). And no, I didn’t have a baby and then fly with said 3-week-old baby and her toddler sister to Oxford for 5 weeks (yep, I’ve done that crazy thing, too). This time I did something truly audacious: I sat down to write a three-part blog series on writing well, with the goal of helping my students (you!) think about research writing not as a chore to be dreaded (avoided, and finally—at the very last minute—begrudgingly completed) but instead as an opportunity to develop the skills required to turn ideas into words that inspire action and world change. Of the things I’ve listed in this paragraph, I’m not sure what the craziest item is. 

What I had originally set out to do in three blog posts is now eight (nine if you count this one). And, if I’m honest, I haven’t even said all the things I wanted to. But I still think that what I’ve done is crazy—and it just might be helpful. So, I wanted to spend a few more sentences outlining what to expect in this blog series. I will end with an invitation for you.  

In the first two blogs, I focus on some topics around orienting yourself to the task of writing. First, I address the question of what scientific writing is (hint: if you are reading this blog on this research website, you are likely have/are going to engage scientific writing at some point in your educational or professional career). Second, I explore two characteristics of effective science writers, characteristics that promote the skill development of writing well. 

In blogs three and four, I zoom in a bit and tackle how scientific papers are organized. Blog three covers the purpose of the different sections of an APA style research paper and blog four tackles how to organize a literature review of research as a stand-alone paper. For all things, including writing, I firmly believe that when we understand the purpose of something, we can engage in a way that increases the likelihood of fulfilling that purpose. In science writing, fulfilling the purpose includes clear and effective communication of discovery (e.g., what things are really like, why the world works the way it does), because discovery is the plotline of science.  

From there, blogs five through eight take a bit of a nosedive into the weeds of writing. I provide 4 examples of tools that I use in my own writing. I take the case example of a paper I recently wrote, a literature review, and I show a few of my steps from start to finish. I tell you about my Dear Mom Draft; I show you how I organize my early literature review search of research articles to deepen my understanding and preparation to start writing; I give you a peek inside my method for editing—especially how I go about deleting sentences that I know need to go but that are hard to let go of; I underscore how the writing process is the thinking process—revision isn’t just for more clarity of phrase, but for clarity of thought.  

Across all these blogs, my goal is to reinforce a basic truth about writing: it is a skill that is developed with practice. I hope that, across these blogs, you’ll be better prepared to engage in the practice of writing well and that you might learn a few tools that are useful in your own skill development.  

There are, of course, many other issues (tools, obstacles, ideas) about writing well that these blogs don’t cover. For example, I didn’t talk at all about reading as a fundamental to good writing (it is!) or specifics of focusing a research question and searching library databases for good sources (key concerns!). Another big one mentioned by a student of mine that I don’t really address is how to maintain motivation to write in the face of waning enthusiasm (and an approaching deadline). Perhaps I’ll take these up in another miniseries which I might call revenge of the writing well blog.  

Between now and the revenge, as these blogs go live over the coming weeks, I want to issue you an invitation. I invite you to engage these blogs as opportunities for your own development. Writing well is not just about the research, it’s about the world change that comes with effective communication and clear thinking. Sure, this might not come out of that paper you are writing for your class, but the skills that you are practicing may just prepare you to be able to do just that. In addition to this long-term invitation, I want to know at the outset: what is it about writing well that you want to learn more about? 

3/7/2022 Update: The University Writing Center, an excellent CBU resource for developing your writing skills, has also contributed their thoughts as a continuation of this blog series. You can (and should) check that blog out here.

Sophia Mun & Russ Bermejo

This is my second year at CBU. The thing that I love most working at CBU is that I am able to do faith integration in classrooms. One day in my first year, I got curious if I could measure the effectiveness of the faith integration I was doing in my classrooms. This led Professor Bermejo and I to start a small research project. In this blog, we would like to briefly share the process of this research and what we have found so far.  

Identify the General Study Idea

The integration of faith and learning is a key feature of Christian higher education. Faculty members in Christian institutions are encouraged to foster integration between students’ understanding of subjects and their faith. At CBU, professors integrate the “Core 4” outcomes in their course instruction so students are (1) academically prepared, (2) Biblically rooted, (3) globally minded, and (4) equipped to serve. Our shared vision of being “unapologetically Christian and academic rigorous” is challenging and inspiring. But how can we assess the effectiveness of faith integration in our classrooms?  

Choose the Research Topic  

First of all, we wanted to see whether our faith integration work in classrooms has an impact on the extent to which students work to integrate their faith with their discipline/class. Second, we also wanted to identify the factors contributing to student faith integration. The purpose of this project was to determine whether and how taking a class in a Christian institution predicts changes in students’ faith integration. Research questions of this project were “Is there any changes in the degree to which students engage in faith integration at the beginning and the end of semester?” And “What factors promote changes?”  

Formulate Plan and Methodology 

Professor Bermejo and I created an online survey to measure basic demographic information and student faith integration. Student faith integration was measured at Time 1 (beginning of semester) and Time 2 (end of semester) using the Psychology and Faith Integration (Psy-FI) Scale (Collison et al., 2019). The scale contains 27 items (e.g., “I often think about how psychology and my faith relate to each other.”) with response options ranging from 1 (Disagree strongly) to 6 (Agree Strongly). Changes in student faith integration were calculated by subtracting student faith integration Time 1 from Time 2. Other variables were also included as possible contributing factors: school year, the course they were taking (BEH or PSY), experience of taking psychology classes, instructor (Professor B. or M.), and spirituality (Instructor & Self).   

Collet Data  

The data was collected in 6 classrooms (PSY & BEH courses) in 2020 fall semester. Longitudinal data was collected from a sample of 161 students (students took the same survey twice at the beginning and the end of semester). The survey was distributed and data was collected via Qualtrics.  

Analyze Data & Present Findings   

We conducted a hierarchical multiple regression analysis to explore contributing factors in changes in student faith integration. Three significant predictors were found: student spirituality, experience of taking psychology classes, and students’ prior faith integration (Time 1, beginning of semester).  Regarding experience of taking psychology classes, we found that students who had not taken a psychology class before showed increases in the degree to which student engage in their faith integration. In addition, students with low faith integration at Time 1 reported increases in faith integration at the end of the semester. Overall, our results demonstrate that faith integration in our classrooms was promoted especially for students with lack of exposure to faith integration in lower-level courses and students with low prior faith integration.  

Summary & Discussion 

Our results show effects of faith integration in classrooms vary depending on students’ experiences and existing levels of faith integration. In summary, we found that faith integration in classrooms may not benefit all students in the degree to which student engage in faith integration. It should be attuned to differences among students in their experience and their prior level of faith integration (e.g., applying different approaches of faith integration to lower level and upper-level classes). 

References 

Collison, B., Eck, B. E., Edwards, J. M., & Allen, E. C. (2019). The Psy-FI Scale: A Measure of Psychology and Faith Integration. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 38(2), 67–80.  

By Julie Goodman-Bowling, Ph.D

My Story:

Many years ago, when I was an undergraduate student at Biola University, my hallmates got together for an event. Little did I know that in that one evening, the trajectory of my life would be so dramatically determined. A group of about 20 college students, we sat around a table while drinking coffee and talked about disadvantaged, mistreated factory workers for a major apparel corporation. I was stunned by how much I did know about something so benign, so seemingly mundane as my daily wardrobe. Like many college students, for us, the call to “social justice” meant doing something significant for the good of the world, however small. Our contribution was writing letters to congressmen, letting them know that we were concerned about the conditions of garment factory workers both locally and overseas and urging them to enforce penalties and fines for a major corporation whose unlawful practices broke many labor codes and violated human rights. I suddenly cared about where my clothes, and many other of my things were mined, assembled, and imported from along with the people involved in every step of the process. Schooled in the ways of “culture” and various practices throughout the world, my perspective of global capitalism and its plethora of effects on the every-day lives of people around the world was dim; that night was when my interest in globalization, culture, capitalism and labor began. Anthropology is the study of humanity across time and culture and touches every part of the human experience – including how we get the stuff we need (and want) to how a broad global system of exchange has so drastically affected the everyday lives of real people “on the ground.”

Why Migration and Labor?

A lot has happened since then – personally, professionally, and globally. I went on to study factory workers in the Los Angeles Garment District as part of my master’s thesis at Cal State Fullerton. I interviewed several workers, primarily from Latin America who shared their stories with me. One woman’s plight remains embedded in my memory. Lourdes* fled from poverty in Honduras in hopes of earning money at a garment factory in Los Angeles at a place that she had learned would hire undocumented workers. She described how she left her husband and children, crossed into the United States, came to Los Angeles, and how quickly her life had changed since her journey began. Growing up in a traditional, Catholic, Honduran home, she valued chastity, family, and faith. Like many well-intentioned mothers** this woman sacrificed so much of her life in order to try to provide for her family. Along the way, she faced many challenges, and at one point, found herself cohabitating with a man for the sake of protection and to share the expenses of living in L.A. The relationship turned physical; she became pregnant. Now, she explained, she felt the many strains of being a cross-cultural, undocumented migrant worker without a lot of support in the United States. Her husband was devastated, and her children were afraid that their mother would forget about them and start a new life in America. Feeling stretched financially already, Lourdes now felt the pressures of providing her family at home and a new, emerging family on the way. She was overworked and aching from performing many repetitious movements as she assembled t-shirts day in and day out, making less than minimum wage (when she was forced to clock in for 8 hours but expected to work 10 to 12 hours each day), and faced difficult working conditions in the factory. For Lourdes, the hope of a better life at the pull of available wage labor, offered opportunity in some ways, but was not at all what she expected. Throughout my years of research, I learned that Lourdes’ story was all too common for many migrant workers, not only in the United States, but around the world.

Since completing my fieldwork in Los Angeles, I continued to study labor migration for my doctoral thesis, spending two years with migrant day laborers in Southern California at a local home improvement store. Through observation, participation, offering English lessons, and conducting interviews, I learned that the processes of migration, labor, culture, and capitalism are all interconnected through a vast web that we call “globalization” – that ever-nebulous interconnectedness that we see evidenced in the movement of labor, finance, disease, resources… among so many other moving parts! I have striven to centralize something that many often miss – the people who are most affected by these broad processes–the migrant workers, the transnational families, the underpaid mothers, fathers, and emerging adults–who are trying to eke out a living and are most affected by globalization, political policies in place to try to regulate global capitalism, and by the many cultural shifts they are challenged to navigate.

Why it Matters

Maybe you have never considered that the cost of producing a denim garment in Bangladesh costs about four times less than in the United States1 or that no more than $6 U.S. usually goes to the labor for a typical garment2. I usually tell my students to take a trip around the globe by opening their closets and investigating all of the tags. Chances are you will find underwear made in the Philippines or Israel, simple t-shirts made in Mexico and blouses from India, pants and socks from Bangladesh, Honduras, or Guatemala. Look a little further and you may be somewhat surprised to find much of your technology–like your cell phone–has taken a trip around the world! It may have gone from the Democratic Republic of Congo where the raw materials were initially mined, to Singapore where many component parts (such as memory chips) were manufactured, to Brazil, where it was assembled, boxed, and shipped eventually to the United States and finally, to your local retail outlet. At the end of the day, the core is cost-effectiveness and in a global capitalist economy, profit prevails over people.

And that is where I come in…or rather, my research interests. Lest I think you have perused this blog to learn more about globalization (a fascinating and important topic of inquiry to be sure!), perhaps you are more interested in applying what we are trained to do in the Behavioral Sciences–to address and find solutions to real social problems in the world. See, I understand we all need “stuff.” I’m not sure I need so much of it, but I am sure we all need, to some degree, “stuff” to survive and “stuff” that we like – which is often culturally determined. Be it clothing, furniture, décor, food, or technology–like our cell phones, computers, and televisions, our “stuff” comes from all over the world, usually because its costs much less to mine, manufacture, assemble, and ship from all over the globe. And, as I have learned from my own research and that of many seasoned scholars, the most effective cost reduction is the human resource – you got it – the worker. Labor is the best place for any company to cut costs which is why, in the grand supply chain of our “stuff,” it is usually the workers who suffer the most. But, this may be beginning to change…

Every year that I teach about this – and oh, there is much more as I’m sure you’ve realized already – my students inevitably ask, “But, Prof. G, how can it be any different? Is there a way to buy “stuff” without contributing to the ever-increasing, profit-driven, global capitalist system to which manufacturing, corporations and even public policies and laws are so deeply embedded? How can I buy anything that won’t hurt someone!?” In other words, where can you shop? If you don’t want to contribute to the bottom line being the bottom line…let me offer you a few suggestions.

The good news is that you are not alone! In fact, there is an emerging movement toward social equality to help ameliorate the many deleterious effects of the current market system. Consumers seem to desire better labor practices, fair wages, and fair-trade products. Local communities are getting involved by creating stronger relationships between producers and consumers of goods, increasing trade and exchange using social media, and requesting greater transparency from corporations about their economic practices. Though not everything you purchase is (currently) available through such conscientious consumption, I suggest that if you are convicted about where and how you choose to buy your products and the type of businesses you want to support, that you simply peruse these ideas–and then, send us some of your own! These are just a few my thoughts as a humble anthropology professor, student of migrant labor, and an increasingly conscientious consumer^[3]:

The artisan movement is quickly becoming a go-to for local consumers for goods such as clothing, accessories, and artwork. The value of local, indigenous representations of culture is priceless! One company, Noonday, is a recent find for me and offers artisan goods from around the globe! Their mission is to be a “socially responsible business that uses fashion to create meaningful opportunities for people across the globe,” through a network of nearly 4,500 artisans in fourteen counties! From necklaces to bracelets, earrings, and scarves, Noonday strives to support job opportunities, the empowerment of women, the livelihood of children, and values connections between producers and consumers. You can find them here: Noonday Collection.

Another great local outfit I recently discovered is a little shop off of Main Street in Seal Beach, California called Jennings and Allen. When I first walked in the shop I was amazed! I felt like I had walked into a museum with all of the material goods they had displayed – and every object had a story! The owners have traveled in search of goods, made by local community artisans and that support many important causes including women empowerment and rebuilding

communities that have fallen victim to famine, war, and many injustices. From Ugandan baskets, Haitian soapstone carvings, Ethiopian bracelets fashioned from refurbished PVC, Guatemalan hand-sewn purses to double-sided, hand-stitched saris-turned-scarves from India, each product tells a story. One of my favorites was the necklace made from repurposed bullet-shells from Ethiopia – a sign of hope and a future. The owners of this establishment know each of their producers and attest to having been to almost all of the places where their goods are made; they either know the artists themselves or have a solid relationship with established community organizations work with local artisans and resource the goods. Here is their website: Jennings and Allen.

Some companies with whom you are already familiar have a “fair trade line” which means you can still get the styles you like while remaining ethically sound! Now, this does not mean that the company is a fair trade company – so don’t be fooled! But it does mean that a company may be taking steps to move in that direction. And because so many companies have joined efforts, one brand may also be a branch of another – for example, J. Crew, Gap, and Old Navy are all connected “brands” so be sure to do some research to make sure the purchase you are making is supports ethical consumerism. This website Fair Trade Styles from Mainstream Companies offers information on many companies like this – but dig deep to get trustworthy facts!

Similarly, Redemption Market, a mobile outfit based in Phoenix, Arizona, travels to local merchants and makeshift markets. They offer goods at their mobile “brick-and-mortar” but they also offer online purchasing and provide a list of fair-trade business at this website: Redemption Market https://redemptionmarket.com.

Finally, if you didn’t think that there were any faith-based organizations in on the fair-trade, ethical shopping action – think again! Jesus’ Economy is an organization whose goal is to offer fair trade goods in order to reduce poverty around the world by offering microbusiness opportunities but also, to fund church planting in poor communities. Their board members are from a variety of denominations and together have a vision to help reduce poverty by helping the poor to build business. You can peruse goods on their website and learn about how you can pray for the needs of the people with whom they minister around the world. Here is their website: Jesus’ Economy.

Okay – so there it is! This is not a comprehensive list – you can find more goods at local markets, including farmer’s markets, craft fairs, or a local bizarre. Even stores like Whole Foods offer aisle displays of a few fair trade goods and unique offerings from around the globe. In Southern California, these goods are getting easier to find – you just have to look in some unexpected places! As you prepare for the holidays hoping to find something special and unique, I hope you have a great time doing some conscientious shopping and making some discoveries of your own!

*Name changed for security purposes

**See the work of sociologist Rachel Parrenas (2005, 2014) and anthropologists Barbra Ehrenriech and Ernie Hoschild (2002)

^[1] N.d. CNN 2013 http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/02/world/asia/bangladesh-us-tshirt/index.html

^[2] Boncich and Appelbaum 2002 

^[3] Disclaimer: My discussion of globalization here is very brief; please realize that there are many reasons for the global economy being what it is today – this is by no means a comprehensive study on globalization, the global economy, or labor migration. There are many layers to these broader systems – all of which we address in anthropology! (Check out the CBU Course Catalogue – ANT 360 and ANT 410 specifically address these issues). The goal of this brief discussion is to introduce unfamiliar readers to my own journey, a background of how global production is embedded in a broader system of global economics, and to really drive home that what we buy can (and does) matter.

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A note from the CSHB: Here in the College of Behavioral and Social Sciences, we believe that we can be the difference one person at a time. As we enter a season full of holiday gift-giving, we would encourage you to think about how your purchases can be the difference for someone, even if you never see them directly. We are starting a list of some of your favorite people-conscious shopping outlets, including those listed by Dr. Goodman-Bowling above. Please feel free to add to that list HERE, and consider exploiting the power of your purchase for the benefit of people in your local and global community, people who beautifully bear the image of our good God.