This is Part 2 of a 3-part blog post.   

Read Part 1: Why Does Commitment Matter in Marriage?

Three Types of Commitment 

It is important to note that the reason partners commit to their marriage may vary. The “tripartite commitment” approach (Johnson, 1991; Johnson, Caughlin, & Huston, 1999) explains commitment as a multidimensional construct that consists of three types of commitment: personal commitment, moral commitment, and structural commitment. Personal commitment refers to “the extent to which one wants to stay in a relationship.” Personal commitment is affected by attraction to one’s partner, attraction to the relationship, and couple identity. Moral commitment refers to “the sense that one is morally obligated to continue a relationship.” Johnson (1999) has argued that moral commitment is affected by three components: a belief in the value of consistency in the marriage, values regarding the stability of a particular type of marriage, and the sense of obligation to one’s partner. Structural commitment refers to “the sense of constraint or that there are barriers to leaving a relationship.” Johnson has argued that this commitment is described in four components: alternatives, social pressure, termination procedures, and irretrievable investments. The first component, alternatives, involves a spouse’s decisions about relationship dissolution because of the availability of alternative circumstances such as economics, housing, and employment. The second component, social pressure, involves opinions or reactions from people who may or may not approve of relationship dissolution. The third component, termination procedures, involves the difficulty of procedures to end a marital relationship. The last component, irretrievable investments, involves feelings about having invested time and resources into a relationship if the relationship comes to an end.

The Importance of Personal Commitment

Married individuals consider commitment to their partners as an essential factor to their current marital satisfaction. Several studies found that individuals who are more committed to their partners have more tolerance and more realistic expectations, spend more time together, give more compliments to the spouse, and forgive their partners, compared to more weakly committed ones. Several studies found that married individuals who are highly committed to each other as persons were found to have significantly less difficulty in solving marital problems in all areas of marriage because commitment provided a foundation for healthy conflict resolution. Research has found that this type of commitment was also related to willingness to sacrifice, better communication, greater happiness, and an increase in accommodation toward partners.   

Clements and Swensen (2000) reported that personal commitment is the strongest and most consistent predictor of marital quality. Swensen and Trahaug found that married individuals whose commitment was primarily to each other as persons had fewer problems and more reciprocal love in marriage than couples whose commitment was mainly to the institution of marriage. 

Personal Commitment In the Bible

The concept of personal commitment is evidenced throughout Scripture. The Hebrew word hesed, which is a strong relational and covenant term, cannot be captured with one English word. Hesed can be translated as love, mercy, grace, faithfulness, loyalty, goodness, and benevolence that are all positive characteristics of God that are true of people. The quality of hesed is going beyond the obligations to duty to show exceptional faithfulness or kindness to those with whom one relates. Although people seek to fulfill their needs on their own behalf, true covenant faith is expressed by placing the welfare of others ahead of oneself. 

In the Old Testament, love is an expression of covenant commitment in acts of hesed. Ruth and Boaz serve as models of hesed by having loved other people more than they loved themselves. When Ruth offered herself in marriage to Boaz, he praised her for a great act of hesed, because she showed kindness and grace. Boaz also treated her with true hesed, even though she was Moabitess. Accordingly, hesed exists in a marriage when a husband and wife go beyond the minimal requirements of his or her obligation and show real kindness to his or her spouse.  

Throughout the Bible, marriage is frequently used as a metaphor to describe the nature of the relationship between God and his people. In the Scriptures, the marriage commitment reflects a permanent covenant between God and His people. Hosea describes the covenant He made with His people as a marital relationship: “I will betroth you to Me forever; Yes, I will betroth you to Me in righteousness and in justice, In loving kindness and in compassion” (Hosea 2:19).  

Biblical marriage based on personal commitment is more than a human contract. Hosea describes Israel’s spiritual condition in Hosea 4:1. “There is no faithfulness, no love, no acknowledgment of God in the land.” The marriage between God and Israel is the covenant, which implies more than a contract where business is at the heart of the relationship. While a contract can be maintained without any love between the two parties, the covenant as marriage is a relationship of love between God and His people.  

As a result, married individuals who show hesed do not simply fulfill their duties to their spouse but go beyond an obligation in a marriage relationship by showing real kindness to their spouse. 

References

Block, D. I. (1999). Judges, Ruth. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers. 

Clements, R., & Swensen, C. H. (2000). Commitment to one’s spouse as a predictor of marital quality among older couples. Current Psychology, 19(2), 110. 

Garrett, D. A. (1997). Hosea, Joel. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman. 

Johnson, M. P. (1991). Commitment to personal relationships. In W. H. Jones & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in Personal Relationships (Vol. 3, pp. 117-143). London: Jessica Kingsley. 

Johnson, M. P., Caughlin, J. P., & Huston, T. L. (1999). The Tripartite nature of marital commitment: personal, moral, and structural reasons to stay married. Journal of Marriage & Family, 61(1), 160-177. 

Swensen, C. H., & Trahaug, G. (1985). Commitment and the long-term marriage relationship. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(4), 939-945. 

This is Part 1 of a 3-part blog post.   

Marriage is the most stable social institution, with approximately 90 percent of adults choosing to marry. Despite high rates of divorce, people expect to marry since they want a deep, lasting, and loving relationship. A number of studies have shown the appeal and benefits of a healthy marriage. Compared to those who are in unhealthy marriages, those who are in healthy marriages are physically, emotionally, financially, and sexually healthier. Married couples, on average, create more economic assets and save and invest more for the future than do otherwise single or cohabitating couples. A healthy marriage not only provides greater life satisfaction and a sense of meaning but also reduces negative emotions such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety. Despite these benefits of marriage, marital cynicism abounds. Young married couples in their first marriage have about a 40 to 50 percent divorce rate. The divorce rate of those who marry more than once rises. These statistics revealed that the level of confidence in marriage has declined.  

Why is a commitment in marriage important? 

Relationship researchers have investigated protective factors and risk factors that affect marital outcomes, including marital satisfaction and marital stability. Among the factors that increase the likelihood of positive marital outcomes, marital commitment has been given a great deal of research attention. While the definition of commitment varies in the literature, the general consensus is that marital commitment requires partners’ intention to preserve their marriage regardless of their situations and feelings or evaluations of their marriage. Such intention stems from partners’ sense of loyalty, devotion, dedication, and sacrifice. Committed partners to each other make intentional efforts for their marriage even in times of conflict and stress. 

Numerous studies revealed that lack of commitment was one of the most important contributors that affected divorce. On the other hand, partners’ high levels of marital commitment have been found to be associated with positive marital outcomes. Highly committed partners are more likely to express their affection, feel close to and interdependent with their partner, have the willingness to accommodate and sacrifice for their partner, and may be more forgiving in response to their partner’s betrayal and transgressions. Furthermore, partners in a highly committed marriage tend to have a strong sense of unity as a couple, share a long-term view of their marriage, prioritize their spouse and marriage over self-interest and are more willing to sacrifice self-interest to preserve their marriage. 

Marital commitment is also an important contributor that increases marital stability, and partners’ lack of commitment is known to be a risk factor for marital dissolution. Highly committed partners expected their union to be life-long, so divorce was not considered even during difficult times. They tend to perceive their marital issues as “solvable” and demonstrate a willingness to work on those issues. Marital commitment is also important for the stability and longevity of remarriages. What makes remarriages likely to end in divorce may be a lack of commitment rather than marital conflict itself. Commitment appears to be a vitally important variable in influencing marriage stability. 

What does the Bible say about commitment?  

The term “commitment “ is little mentioned in the Scriptures, but the characteristics of commitment are similar to those of covenant that is evidenced throughout the Scriptures. The Hebrew transliteration for the word “covenant” is berit, which refers to agreements or pledges between men or a covenant between God and men. The term covenant generally implies “the idea of a solemn commitment, guaranteeing promises or obligations undertaken by one or both covenanting parties.” Grudem (2000) defined covenant as “an unchangeable, divinely imposed legal agreement between God and man that stipulates the conditions of their relationship.” The essential element at the heart of the covenant is the unchangeable promise.  

Genesis 2:18-25 provides important teaching about marriage in all of the Bible. The passage about Adam and Eve portrays marital commitment in these words: “a man shall leave his father and his mother, and be joined to his wife; and they shall become one flesh” (Gen 2:24). “They shall become one flesh” refers to the sexual act as the consequence of their bonding, which unites husband and wife in one new person. The Hebrew transliteration for “be joined” used in this verse is dabaq, which means “to adhere,” “to cling,” or “to stick.” The Hebrew word dabaq is commonly used to describe covenant relationships in the Bible. One of the examples of a covenant relationship in the Bible is Ruth’s commitment to Naomi. When Naomi allowed Ruth to return to the place where she was staying, she clung (dabaq) to her. Ruth’s statement revealed the nature and depth of commitment. “Where you go I will go, and where you stay I will stay. Your people will be my people and your God my God” (Ruth 1:16). 

Conclusion 

Marriage continues to be considered an important social institution in which individuals secure a loving, committed relationship with their partner. Americans have become less likely to marry, while unmarried cohabitation has rapidly increased. The divorce rate of those who marry more than once rises. Lack of commitment was one of the most important contributors that affected divorce. As this research shows, commitment appears to be a vitally important variable in influencing marriage stability. Commitment is as a critical aspect in enabling married individuals to persevere in marriage. The Bible also shows that commitment is a primary motive for God’s covenant love for people and a long-term marriage relationship. 

References 

Adams, J. M., & Jones, W. H. (1997). The conceptualization of marital commitment: An Integrative Analysis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72, 1177-1196.  

Cate, R. M., Levin, L. A., & Richmond, L. S. (2002). Premarital relationship stability: A review of recent research. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 19, 261-284.  

Grudem, W. A. (2000). Systematic theology: an introduction to biblical doctrine. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. 

U.S. Census Bureau, (2014). America’s families and living arrangements. Retrieved from:  https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2014/demo/families/cps-2014.html 

Whitton, S. W., Stanley, S. M., Markman, H. J., & Johnson, C. A. (2013). Attitudes toward divorce, commitment, and divorce proneness in first marriages and remarriages. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 75, 276-287.  

The person in the environment (PIE) theory, related to the ecological model is fundamental in social work generalist practice.  The theory poses that as social workers conceptualize their clients, they are not only to consider the individual level factors that may influence the client’s presenting problem- but to also assess if or how the client’s environment and their goodness of fit in the environment may be contributing to their presentation (Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, & Strom, 2016; Schalock, & Jensen, 1986).   

In an oversimplified manner, goodness of fit can be defined as the degree to which the client experiences congruence in and with their environment and context (Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, & Strom, 2016; Nye & Drasgow, 2011). Notably, goodness of fit may change based on the context.  That is, a client may have a higher degree of goodness of fit in one context versus another.  For example, a monolingual Spanish-speaking client may feel a stronger goodness of fit among a group of Spanish speakers compared to a group of English-only speakers- in which case, they would not understand the language.  

Let’s look at an example of applying the PIE theory and goodness of fit concept.  Let’s consider that a monolingual Spanish-speaking client who is unhoused is struggling with taking their medications as prescribed – as the medication is to be taken three times a day with meals.  Further, they are having a hard time communicating this problem to their provider due to language barriers and/or feelings of insecurity and unhelpful, inaccurate thoughts such as, “If I tell my doctor I am not taking my medication, they may get mad at me, and I may no longer be a candidate for the housing program”.  

According to the PIE theory, the social worker is to assess the individual’s fit in their environment – that is assess individual client factors that may be contributing to their lack of medication adherence and assess the client’s goodness of fit in their environment.  In doing so, the social worker is to assess multilevel factors related of the individual’s micro, mezzo and macro systems and consider perhaps the issue of having a language barrier in considering goodness of fit.  Further, the social worker can work to enhance the client’s capabilities and strengthen his goodness of fit by giving him a translation tool that he can take to his appointments- or the social worker may choose to adapt the client’s environment by helping the client change providers to a bilingual provider.  

It is my suggestion that as professors, perhaps we may consider these ideas towards supporting student academic success.  A few years ago I had an office hour appointment with a student who shared that they had recently moved (unwillingly- due to financial reasons) and were saddened that they no longer had access to a quiet, well lit, comfortable, and inviting place to study.  As I considered this I shared about the PIE theory and together we began brainstorming ways in which the student may improve her goodness of fit in her new environment.  It was not easy, to figure out other spaces she may be able to study in her new living quarters, but the student landed on the importance of changing her mindset and appraisal of the new living situation so that she would move towards acceptance and “making lemonade out of lemons”.   

The student ended up claiming the kitchen table as her new study area and had to have conversations with her family so that all would be respectful and supportive of her needs.  Perhaps this idea may not solve all our student’s struggles and challenges while in their academic journey, but maybe it is just one more tool that we together with our students can consider entertaining as a conceptual model towards problem-solving and student academic success. 

References

Hepworth, D. H., Rooney, R. H., Rooney, G. D., & Strom, K. (2016). Empowerment series:  

Direct social work practice: Theory and skills. Cengage Learning. 

Nye, C. D., & Drasgow, F. (2011). Assessing goodness of fit: Simple rules of thumb simply do  

not work. Organizational Research Methods, 14(3), 548-570. 

Schalock, R. L., & Jensen, C. M. (1986). Assessing the goodness-of-fit between persons and  

their environments. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11(2), 103-109. 

This is Part 4 of a 4-part blog post. 

Read Part 1: Black History Month: A Call For Healing Conversations

Read Part 2: Healing Conversations on Race: The Role of Empathy in Building Christlike Racial Unity

Read Part 3: Healing Conversations on Race: Acceptance

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We sat around the dinner table on a typical weeknight; my husband, myself, my 10-year old daughter, and my 7-year old son. We were probably eating pizza or Chinese food (I can’t remember). As we watched the evening news a commercial came on advertising an upcoming documentary special celebrating Black History month. In just a few moments the trailer for the program highlighted slavery, the civil rights movement, and the Jim Crow era. My son turned to me and asked “Why do White people hate Black people?” Then my daughter chimed in “Yea, why do White people always try to kill Black people? Why are they so mean?”  I was frozen and didn’t know what to say. I planned on having a simple dinner not answering deep sociological questions from a 7- year old. This was a painful question to answer because, based on historical and current facts, I could see why they would conclude that White people must hate Black people. What other conclusion could they draw about slavery, segregation, or the murder of George Floyd? However, I didn’t want them to believe that ALL White people are hateful and violent towards Black people. I needed them to feel hopeful and believe that the “arch of the moral universe is long but it bends towards justice”. What my children were experiencing is what some scholars call intergenerational racial trauma. Although my children have not experienced racism directly, and live in a very racially diverse and loving environment, they still feel the sting of anti-black racism in society.  

As I sat at the table searching for a response to my children’s questions I thought quickly back to the book my colleagues and I wrote; Healing Conversations on Race. The chapter I spent the most time writing was about Love. In this chapter, we suggest to readers that the love of God and love of others is a commandment. Also, Christlike love should be demonstrated through actions that exemplify the nature of Christ. Further, we have both an individual and collective responsibility to demonstrate Christlike love in all our relationships. It is critical to recognize that Christlike love is incompatible with racial disunity and racism. As we move closer to consistently living a life that demonstrates Christlike love we should be compelled towards a pursuit of racial unity.  

So I said to my children “Do you think it’s true that ALL white people hate Black people?” “What about your best friends Jennifer and Conner?” “What about Aunt Alice?” “Do they hate you?” These were all people who are very close to our family and love them dearly. They also happen to be white. We started a conversation about what love looks like and how it’s impossible to hate someone and be violent toward them if you truly love them. We talked about the ways our white friends demonstrate their love towards us.  As we had this conversation, I could see their wheels spinning and see them begin to develop discrepancies between the hate they saw displayed in that commercial and the love they experience in their lives.  

The experience my children had was one I pray more Christians have. The Healing Conversations on Race book helps Christians have these kinds of conversations. In the book we teach that God hates sin, racism is a sin, so God hates racism. The book guides us to see how our life experiences, relationships, and internalized narratives have led us to have beliefs about folks who are racially different from us. Many times these beliefs are inaccurate and inconsistent with scripture. We suggest that love is not a cliché or ambiguous feeling and the Bible teaches us what it looks like to really love others. We suggest that love is displayed through Christlikeness, humility, and self-sacrifice. We teach that love is incompatible with racist thoughts, behaviors, policies, and societies and loving conversations can bring healing.  

My children are still young and will continue to wrestle with understanding race and racism. Our brief dinner conversation does not negate the reality of racialized hate in this country. However, I hope that our conversation helped them to think more deeply about their relationships and the ways they can engage with white people (and others who are racially different) in a way that draws them into loving, Christlike relationships. My hope for them, and for you, is that we can practice humility, empathy, acceptance, and love that drives out hate and racism and brings us closer to unity in Christ. This is very challenging work. However, it’s through intimate relationships with those who are racially different that we can have new experiences and rewrite narratives. It’s through these relationships that God will convict, and draw to repentance, those who harbor racial hatred or complicity towards racial injustice. Ultimately, I pray that through this approach we can HEAL our racial wounds and truly be the body of Christ that God desires us to be.  

Thank you for following this blog series and I invite you to take the next step. You can visit our website to learn more about the book and how to begin the HEAL journey. We believe that reading the book will give you the foundational knowledge and skills necessary to engage in a real conversation with a racially different brother/sister in Christ. We are confident that taking this important step will move you as an individual, and the Church as whole, closer to racial unity which is consistent with Christlikeness. Through this process, Christians stand to be a shining example of the transformational power of Christ by demonstrating a solution to the racial disunity and racism that plagues our society.

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This blog is the final of 4 in our Black History Month Blog Series for 2023. Check back each Wednesday of February for more on how to have healing conversations. CBU Students who comment on these blogs will have a chance to receive a copy of the book. Winners will be emailed in early March. Listen. Learn. Engage.

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References

This blog is the first of 4 in our Black History Month Blog Series for 2023. Check back each Wednesday of February for more on how to have healing conversations. CBU Students who comment on these blogs will have a chance to receive a copy of the book. Winners will be emailed in early March. Listen. Learn. Engage.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., “Remaining Awake Through a Great Revolution.” Speech given at the National Cathedral, March 31, 1968. https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/remaining-awake-through-great-revolution-address-morehouse-college  

Wyatt, T. R., Taylor, T. R., White, D., & Rockich-Winston, N. (2021). “When No One Sees You as Black”: The Effect of Racial Violence on Black Trainees and Physicians. Academic medicine, 96(11S), S17-S22.  

www.healingconversationsonrace.com  

This is Part 3 of a 4-part blog post.   

Read Part 1: Black History Month: A Call For Healing Conversations

Read Part 2: Healing Conversations on Race: The Role of Empathy in Building Christlike Racial Unity

Read Part 4: Healing Conversations on Race: Love

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I remember standing in the check-out line at a Chevron station, staring at the candy shelf and wondering whether I should indulge in a pack of Whoppers. The man in line behind me slowly made his way next to me and smiled, saying, “Hey.” While I was preoccupied with the Whoppers, he moved a little closer and then asked a question that I always dreaded, “What are you?”

I didn’t know how I wanted to respond. I knew that he was asking about my race or ethnicity. As a biracial woman, I’d been asked the question many times in the past. But in this unexpected moment, my emotions took hold, and I felt many things at once. Initially, I was angry (I’d been minding my own business thinking about Whoppers) when the unwanted question was posed. I wanted to tell the man, “I’m a human.” As the line started to move, I chose, despite my anger, to say to him, “I’m mixed.” I then paid for my gas and left the Whoppers behind. Yet, even as I drove away from the Chevron, my pulse raced, and I felt flush, not knowing how best to respond to the many emotions I was experiencing.

Emotions can often feel unmanageable when we are in the heat of a sensitive moment like the one I described. This can be especially true when talking about race or race-related topics or when a person of color is faced with racism. So, what do we do with our feelings when we talk about these topics with others, especially when these conversations occur in the midst of our cross-racial relationships? According to the Healing Conversations on Race (HEAL) model (Vazquez et al., 2023), a key practice is the use of acceptance.

Acceptance (the A in the HEAL acronym) refers to the acceptance of emotions. Given that race-related topics can stir up strong emotions, finding ways to respond to these feelings in a helpful manner is important if we want to build and maintain cross-racial relationships. First, we need to differentiate between the two types of emotions we experience: primary emotions and secondary emotions.

Primary emotions are the initial, deeper, and more vulnerable emotions we often have when responding to topics of race and/or racism. These emotions might include fear, sadness, hurt, shame, or righteous anger. The good thing about primary emotions is that they remind us of our relational needs Greenberg & Paivio, 2003; Kobak et al., 2015). For example, sadness might remind us of a relational need for comfort from others, or fear might remind us of a relational need for others to help us feel safe. When we share our primary emotions and our needs in relationships with others, we connect with others on a deeper level than when we avoid these feelings and needs or attempt to ignore them altogether. In fact, this type of emotional sharing can even help heal old wounds created in cross-racial relationships (even if the person you share with did not create the wound; Makinen & Johnson, 2006).

On the other hand, secondary emotions mask or cover up our primary emotions and our relational needs. In conversations on race, secondary emotions might include frustration,

defensiveness, and unrighteous anger. Unfortunately, these are often the emotions we focus on when struggling to have conversations about race-related topics. Secondary emotions, though, create distance in relationships because they place a barrier between us and others by hiding our deeper, more vulnerable feelings and our relational needs.

As Christians, we believe that God created humans as emotional beings and that sharing emotions can bond us together in our relationships with others (Howard, 2018). Given that primary emotions provide signals for our needs within relationships, we believe that becoming aware of and accepting of your own, and others, primary emotions is a key practice in having conversations on race. As a strategy for doing this, we suggest practicing acceptance.

Acceptance can be described as an emotion regulation skill or coping skill. It is a means of tolerating your unpleasant thoughts and primary emotions rather than attempting to escape them or cover them up with secondary emotions. It includes non-judgmental observation of your own emotions and offering yourself compassion while you stay fully emotionally engaged with others (Knabb, Vazquez, et al., 2019; Knabb et al., 2021). For Christians, this includes inviting God into your emotional experience, asking for his presence, love, and active care in the midst of recognizing and responding to your primary emotions. You can do this by cultivating attention toward your emotions (concentrating on one emotion at a time), present-focus (focusing on the here-and-now rather than jumping to the future or the past in your mind), and awareness (recognizing/naming your thoughts and feelings with non-judgment) (Feldman et al., 2007; Knabb et al., 2019, 2021).

Returning to the story of my interaction at the Chevron station, what might have been different had I known then what I know now about acceptance? I might have slowed down my whirlwind of internal thoughts with present-focus and attempted to recognize and name my primary and secondary emotions without judging myself in the process. I might have noticed not only anger but also sadness and loss at, once again, feeling misunderstood and different from others. I then could have taken a moment to become aware of those feelings and invite God to be with me as I better sought to understand my relational need at that moment – to be accepted and understood. I could then have sought ways to reach out to others in my cross-racial community to ask for that relational need to be met.

To put acceptance into practice in your cross-racial relationships, here are a few questions to ask yourself during conversations about race-related topics:

• What are my current primary or secondary emotions?

• What are my emotions telling me about my current relational needs?

• What steps am I taking to actively engage in “acceptance” of my own and others’ emotions?

As you think about today’s blog post, I encourage you to share your thoughts about the following question:

· How might you have benefited in some of your prior conversations on race by practicing acceptance?

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This blog is the third of 4 in our Black History Month Blog Series for 2023. Check back each Wednesday of February for more on how to have healing conversations. CBU Students who comment on these blogs will have a chance to receive a copy of the book. Winners will be emailed in early March. Listen. Learn. Engage.

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References

Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29, 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8

Howard, E. (2018). A guide to Christian spiritual formation: How Scripture, spirit, community, and mission shape our souls. Baker Academic. https://www.amazon.com/Guide-Christian-Spiritual-Formation-Scripture/dp/0801097800

Knabb, J., Vazquez, V., & Pate, R. (2019). “Set your minds on things above”: Shifting from trauma-based ruminations to ruminating on God. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22(4), 384-399. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2019.1612336

Knabb, J. J., Vazquez, V. E., Pate, R. A., Garzon, F. L., Wang, K. T., Edison-Riley, D., Slick, A. R., Smith, R. R., & Weber, S. E. (2021a). Christian meditation for trauma-based rumination: A two-part study examining the effects of an internet-based 4-week program. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 9(4), 253-271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/scp0000255

Makinen, J. A., & Johnson, S. M. (2006). Resolving attachment injuries in couples using emotionally focused therapy: Steps toward forgiveness and reconciliation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1055–1064. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1055

Vazquez, V., Knabb, J. J., Lee-Johnson, C., & Hays, K. (2023). Healing conversations on race: Four key practices from scripture and psychology. IVP Academic. https://www.amazon.com/Healing-Conversations-Race-Practices-Psychology/dp/1514003929/

This is Part 2 of a 4-part blog post.  Read Part 1 here, Part 3 here, and Part 4 here.

Read Part 1: Black History Month: A Call For Healing Conversations

Introduction 

In Healing Conversations on Race: Four Key Practices from Scripture and Psychology (Vazquez et al., 2023), four racially-diverse authors with advanced training in the behavioral sciences present four key steps for Christians to cultivate and maintain racial unity within the Body of Christ. Drawing upon the Bible as the beginning and ending point, then supplementing Scripture with insights gained from the psychological sciences, we advocate for humility, empathy, acceptance, and love to promote relational healing among racially-different Christians. 

In the book—which was written for Christians who are committed to following Christ and want to improve their ability to engage in, and deepen, conversations on race and racism—we offer four key steps that we believe can make a salient difference in Christian communities, including (a) maintaining an attitude of humility when having difficult conversations on the sensitive, and often painful, topic of race, (b) using empathy as a way to understand others’ unique race-related thoughts, feelings, behaviors, memories, experiences, narratives/stories, needs, and so forth, (c) effectively moving toward the acceptance of one’s own and others’ emotions, experiences, and needs, and (d) displaying Christlike love in being behaviorally responsive to others’ emotional pain and needs. Although these four steps are explored in much more detail in the book, I would like to devote this short blog to presenting the second key step—empathy. 

Therefore, in this second in a series of four blog posts to dually present the four steps of the book and celebrate Black History Month, my goal, as one of the contributing authors, is to advocate for the foundational role of empathy in having healing conversations on race. In other words, I, along with my three co-authors—Drs. Veola Vazquez, Charles Lee-Johnson, and Krystal Hays—suggest that moving from disunity to unity within diverse, yet tragically segregated, Christian communities requires a deeper understanding of the emotions and needs of others. To start, I would like to define empathy, including its ingredients, then place it in the context of a healing conversation on race. My hope in this short blog is to point readers to the book, which includes much more thorough explanations, steps, activities, exercises, and examples of how to have healing conversations on race within diverse Christian communities. 

Empathy Defined 

According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (n.d.), empathy is “understanding a person from his or her frame of reference rather than one’s own, or vicariously experiencing that person’s feelings, perceptions, and thoughts.” So, in essence, empathy involves trying to make sense of someone else’s story, from the inside-out and a place of compassion, including the various thoughts, feelings, and experiences that collectively capture the powerful narrative of another’s life. This ability seems to be uniquely human, with human beings having the God-given skillset of trying to understand the inner world, not just the outer behavior, of others. 

Of course, for Christians, we have the grand story of the Bible, or God’s special revelation, as a starting point, which includes four overarching themes that span the Old to New Testaments—creation, fall, redemption, and restoration. In other words, God created humankind in his image. Yet, Adam and Eve turned from God and, consequently, were banished from the Bible, Because of the fall, humans now experience all sorts of suffering, including the sin of racism and racial disunity, even in Christian communities. Still, God has offered humans a redemptive plan, based on the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. So, for Christ followers who have put their faith in Jesus Christ, a restored relationship with God is possible as Christians faithfully wait for God’s eventual restoration of all things, and Christians are to emulate Christ in building and maintaining Christlike unity, regardless of race, within Christ’s Body. 

With Scripture as a trustworthy guide, racially-different Christians have a shared story in which we are all embedded—God’s story—which means we have a firm foundation upon which to build and maintain racial unity. However, each Christian also has a unique story to tell, and Christians of color often face, on a regular basis, the enduring effects of the sin of racism. As a result, empathy can allow racially-different Christians to learn more about, and respond to, each unique race-related narrative that has developed over time in a fallen, broken world. 

In the context of healing conversations on race, compassionately trying to understand the other person’s story, made up of a unique amalgam of thoughts, feelings, perspectives, and experiences, is key, especially their deeper, more vulnerable emotions and corresponding relational needs. Put more succinctly, feelings are signals that reveal what we need from those around us. Sadness, for instance, may convey loss and the need to be comforted by another during moments of grief and mourning, whereas fear can communicate present-moment danger and the need to be protected by someone else. Anger, as another example, can reveal themes of unfairness, unmet expectations, or injustice, with the need to create distance or attain a sense of control in relationships, and guilt can let us know we have wronged someone else and need to take steps to repent of the wrongdoing. 

To offer a quick race-related example, if a Christian of color is expressing the pain of racism to a White Christian, the White brother or sister in Christ can compassionately listen to their story, especially the deeper, more vulnerable emotion (possibly sadness, fear, anger, hurt, shame, and so forth), along with the corresponding interpersonal need (e.g., validation, affirmation, support, responsiveness). To do so, a few important questions can be asked. 

Empathy Applied 

To make an intentional effort to empathize with another person when engaged in a conversation on race, asking a few key questions can be helpful: (a) What is this person feeling right now, and how can I communicate I’m understanding the feeling? and (b) What does this person need from me right now, and how can I meet the need?  

For instance, in returning to the previous example, if a Christian of color is expressing the pain of racism, the White brother or sister in Christ can try to identify the feeling in the moment, then convey they are attempting to understand with a few key phrases, such as “That sounds so painful,” “I can’t even begin to understand the hurt you must feel,” “That seems like such a scary experience,” or “That must have been such a huge loss.” 

From there, the White Christian can begin to compassionately pinpoint the need that the Christian of color has in the moment, such as being affirmed and validated (e.g., “You have every reason to feel hurt”) or supported (e.g., “I want you to know I stand with you right now”). Or, if the White Christian is unsure of how to respond, they can ask a few simple, direct questions, such as “What can I do right now to support you? “How can I help?” or “What do you need from me right now?” Ultimately, the uniquely human ability to empathize involves striving, albeit imperfectly, to better understand the emotional world, and corresponding relational need, of the other person, placed against the backdrop of personal and scriptural narratives. For brothers and sisters in Christ, we are one Body, which means we are called to respond to each’s needs in a fallen, broken world, emulating Jesus Christ in all we do. 

Conclusion 

To summarize, in Healing Conversations on Race, empathy is the second of four major steps. Placed in the context of the four others, we first commit to displaying humility as we enter into, and continue on with, healing conversations on race. In doing so, we also empathize with the other person’s story, which includes their spectrum of inner and outer experiences. From there, we accept our own, and other person’s, emotions, given they are signals that can convey vital information about relational needs. Finally, we display Christlike love by behaviorally responding to the other person’s emotions and needs, then commit to continuing to respond to our racially-different brothers and sisters in Christ in order to glorify God in all we do. 

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This blog is the second of 4 in our Black History Month Blog Series for 2023. Check back each Wednesday of February for more on how to have healing conversations. CBU Students who comment on these blogs will have a chance to receive a copy of the book. Winners will be emailed in early March. Listen. Learn. Engage.

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References 

Vazquez, V., Knabb, J., Lee-Johnson, C., & Hays, K. (2023). Healing conversations on race: Four  

key practices from Scripture and psychology. InterVarsity Press. 

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.). Empathy. https://dictionary.apa.org/empathy  

This is Part 1 of a 4-part blog series.  Read Part 2 here , Part 3 here and Part 4 here.

In 1926, Carter G. Woodson, known as the “Father of Black History”, launched “Negro History Week” to be observed annually every February in honor of the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809), and Frederick Douglass (estimated to be February 14, 1818, due to no official recordings of slave births).  Carter G. Woodson stated, “If a race has no history, if it has no worthwhile tradition, it becomes a negligible factor in the thought of the world, and in it stands in danger of being exterminated”.  Negro History week, which later became Black History Month, was created by Woodson to encourage knowledge and interest in Black achievements and adversities while moving America to not simply focus on “Negro History, but on the Negro in History”.  Woodson believed that appreciation of Black History would not only lift the confidence and esteem of African Americans, but enable African Americans to confidently, courageously, and comfortably engage in healthy conversations with White Americans, and other races, as equals in the advancement of humanity. In essence, the spirit of Black History Month is to enable all people to engage in healing conversations on race, that propel us towards a higher love and harmony amongst one another.   

In the aftermath of the murder of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, I and my colleagues were in a faculty meeting that was proceeding with business as usual.  I remember the meeting concluding as I thought to myself “Are my white Christian colleagues really not going to say anything about the fact that another unarmed black man has been killed at the hands of law enforcement on video?” At the time, I had been working at CBU during the law enforcement murders of Greg Gunn, Philando Castille, Paul O’Neal, Terrence Crutcher, Jordan Edwards, Eurie Martin, Stephon Clark, Marcus David-Peters, Antwon Rose Jr., George Robinson, Botham Jean, Ronald Greene, Javier Ambler, Elijah McClain, Manuel Ellis, Breonna Taylor, Daniel Prude, and now George Floyd (we must say their names because their lives mattered), with these being the high profile cases that got news coverage, not including the 91 other documented murders of African Americans by law enforcement officers during this same period that received little to no attention.  Nothing that we were discussing in that meeting seemed as important to me than the reminder the entire country had just witnessed through the camera phone of 17-year-old Darnella Frazier, that Black Lives Don’t Matter, and that I, my children, my family, my friends, my neighbors, or my students could be next.  I, and my colleagues of color felt invisible in that meeting, unseen, unimportant, and insignificant, scarred by the silence of a Christian white majority that seemed to be disconnected from what we were all feeling on that day.  In an angry outburst and tears, I expressed my feelings at the close of the meeting, presenting a scathing rebuke of the all too familiar silence of white Christians on social issues impacting people of color.  I felt the words of Dr. King when he stated “There comes a time when silence is betrayal”; “He who accepts evil without protesting against it is really cooperating with it”; and “In the end, we will remember not the words of our enemies, but the silence of our friends”. 

The hurt of that meeting led to some transformative hallway meetings in the James building of CBU, in which white and black colleagues engaged in healing conversations on race, which later led us to writing a book together, to help ourselves and others have cross-racial conversations that lead to healing, empathy, acceptance, and love, all in our collective pursuit of Christ and Christlikeness.  In the process of these conversations, I discovered that my assumptions about the reasons for my white colleagues’ silence were wrong, and they learned that as their friend, I needed their voice and presence when tragedy strikes our community.  The book that we have written as a result of these conversations is entitled: Healing Conversations on Race: Four Key Practices from Scripture and Psychology, is now available, and free copies of the book will be raffled to those who interact with our posts during Black History Month, in which I, and the three other authors of this amazing book, share thoughts, reflections, and suggestions based on the book, on how we can all have Healthy Conversations on Race.   

The book uses the H-E-A-L acronym as a model to guide conversations on race.  Each week during Black History Month, one of the letters of the acronym will be explained by one of the authors.  For our first week, we will focus on “H” which is short for Humility in our model.  I must confess, it was hard for me, as a black man, to begin any conversation with the suggestion that I needed to be more “humble” in a conversation on race.  The collective black response to intergenerational, systemic, and historical oppression has been the model of humility, as we have sought to ingratiate, integrate, and imagine a better America while facing injustice, water hoses, unjust laws, de jure and de facto segregation, police dogs, lynchings, murders, rape, imprisonment, voter suppression, redlining, gerrymandering, invisible ceilings, medical experimentation, media stereotyping, microassaults and microinsults, and much more.  Why should I, and those like me, be humble after enduring such domestic terrorism, provocation, and dehumanization?  In the search for an answer to this question, I discovered an important truth, that we must grapple with in order to proceed.  The call to have a healing conversation on race, cannot be motivated by the worthiness of the person with whom you will discourse, nor one’s personal feelings of being willing to engage.  The call to healing conversations is not one that is led by an individual, but rather led by God, who reminds us that we, people of all races, are made in the Imago Dei (Image of God), and it is His desire that we “lower ourselves” to one another, just as He lowered His Son into our world, for our individual and collective salvation.  If God could lower himself to be in skin, walk in the darkness of this world, be born into poverty, endure the nastiness of Roman oppression, be subject to wrongful imprisonment, police brutality, injustice in the court system, and ultimately murdered like George Floyd in the streets of Golgatha; who am I to say that I cannot embrace humility in conversations on race?  While cultural humility is the lifelong process of reflecting, acknowledging, and critiquing one’s personal biases, what we propose in our book is a Christ-centered humility, which transcends cultural humility, because it moves us away from the adoption of the thoughts and trends of modern culture, and instead advances us towards a focus on Christ, as the perfect measure for understanding how we should engage with one another.  In our gratitude for the grace extended to us from God, we humble ourselves before our brothers and sisters of different races, seeking to imitate our Savior, who came to heal the enmity between man and God; we humble ourselves to heal the racial tension that pervades our world.  We are guided by the words of 2 Chronicles 7:14 “If my people, which are called by my name, shall humble themselves, and pray, and seek my face, and turn from their wicked ways; then will I hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin, and will heal their land.”  We begin healing conversations with humility, understanding that when there has been a tear in a relationship, the most important thing is not to prove who’s right or wrong, but rather to move ourselves into a position where God can take control, and transform our opposition to another into an opportunity for us to grow closer together. 

This Black History Month, I encourage everyone to consider engaging in healing conversations, focusing first, on Christ-Centered humility, responding not as the culture dictates, but rather adopting a Christlikeness, in which we lower ourselves so that God can initiate the healing process between us.  In your celebration of Black History Month, in what ways can you adopt a Christ-centered humility to move you to be a better listener, encourager, supporter, and ally of someone of a different race? Your reflection on this question places a smile on the face of Carter G. Woodson and transforms Black History month from being a moment, into becoming a movement.  Join us in the movement of promoting healing conversations on race.

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This blog is the first of 4 in our Black History Month Blog Series for 2023. Check back each Wednesday of February for more on how to have healing conversations. CBU Students who comment on these blogs will have a chance to receive a copy of the book. Winners will be emailed in early March. Listen. Learn. Engage.

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Read Part 2 here.

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References 

Goggin, Jacqueline (1997) Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History.  LSU Press 

Vazquez, V., Knabb, J., Lee-Johnson, C., & Hays, K. (2023). Healing conversations on race: Four key practices from Scripture and psychology. InterVarsity Press. 

Each semester, the CSHB offers events to develop and empower researchers (students and faculty alike!). Last semester, we had the honor of hosting Dr. Sarah Schnitker, who presented her research and a workshop on tips for succeeding in research. Details about these events, including recordings and slides for her research presentation, are available in the Events tab. Below, the CSHB Student Worker shares her take on one of these events. You’ll see from her reflections that attending and engaging was worth her time. I wanted to share her reflections now because, in a few weeks, we will be hosting our spring speaker, who will present on engaging in multidisciplinary research. You can find details about this presentation on the Events tab. Read on, and I hope to see you on February 9th at our next event!

– Dr. Smith, Director of the Center for the Study of Human Behavior

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How to Succeed In Research

Most people have specific interests of some sort, whether that be in education, social systems, art, science or any domain of life. Personal goals and topic focus may vary between individuals, but the innate desire to search for solutions to tough questions, probe the unknown, and make a positive contribution to the world serves as a unifying element in becoming…. a researcher. The word research on its own might be enough to instill anxiety or maybe even a sense of impossibility. Stressful emotions will be inevitable at times, especially throughout pursuing higher education or while learning new skills—like conducting research.  

However, many students, including myself, might experience a prolonged intellectual roadblock as a result of these emotions, a roadblock that encourages the avoidance of research rather than a courageous engagement with research. My prayer this year is to ask God for a humble heart that is courageous but not proud, one in which fear does not stagnate my motivation. The quest and goal for myself as an undergraduate psychology student is to press into all the feelings- the good, the bad, and the ugly.  

“Courage is resistance to fear, mastery of fear — not absence of fear.” 

Mark Twain

Dr. Schnitker of Baylor University presented three tools that can be used to combat the fear of failure, anxiety, and remaining stagnant in the pursuit of research. She highlighted the epistemic value of learning how to manage rejection well, implement intentions, and evaluate social networks which all have a role in the development of becoming a more successful researcher. And trust me, she knows a thing or two about being a successful researcher! Her workshop emphasizes a highly inclusive and practical approach to help evaluate common research habits that could lead to intellectual roadblocks such as anxiety or procrastination.  Dr. Schnitker carefully pointed out that these skills do not always guarantee a desired outcome, but they will orient the developing researcher in a way that is healthy and, ultimately, more productive.  

#1 Using Rejection and Failure as Motivation 

 So, what was the first thing Dr. Schnitker mentioned as a tip to succeed in research? The learned skill of using rejection and failure as a tool for motivation. Throughout her career, Dr. Schnitker has procured more than ten million dollars in grant funding and has been successfully published in multiple academic journals. To some, this may seem unattainable or beyond their intellectual caliber, but she asserts that persistence and normalization of rejection are aspects among many that contribute to these success rates and endowments. She fosters the idea of finding value in rejection and advocates for a shift from viewing it as a failure to a proactive moldable approach across a wide range of intellectual capacities. The primary difference between a scholar who has received a lot of grant funding or published a lot of papers and one who has not, according to Dr. Schnitker, is that the former has submitted a lot more applications (and thus received more rejections and failures).  

As an unhealthy perfectionist at times, I resonated with this tip. At times I have become so worried and fearful of rejection that I essentially rob myself of the opportunity to even fail at all. The absence of opportunities to fail then develops a proxy that inhibits opportunity for growth.  As an undergraduate senior psychology student, I am learning how to rest better in certain losses knowing that God can turn them into wins. The painful emotions that can become embodied after academic or personal life rejection are heavy, but despite this we see the Psalmist declare “It was good for me to be afflicted, that I might learn your statutes”- Psalm 119:71 

“Multiple rejections do not indicate poor product or low competency”

Dr. Sarah Schnitker

#2 Mental Contrasting and Implementation Intentions 

The second tip stemmed from research done on mental contrasting and setting implementation intentions (Duckworth et al., 2011). The focus here is to automatize the pursuit of goals which can prove to be useful in combating negative emotions such as stress and anxiety that may accompany research and deadlines. The first step is to engage in mental contrasting by conceptualizing a large-scale goal such as choosing a research topic focus for graduate school or maybe completing and defending a dissertation. Next, assess what factors might be preventing your pursuit or completion of the goal, as this will encourage active movement instead of passive dwelling. Implementation intentions should be framed in an “if-then” form to provide flexibility and accommodation. For example, if I need more time to work on a project, I could set up an intention that says, “If one of my classes is canceled, I will use that time to work on my research paper.” In addition to the time I have “regularly scheduled” to work on this project, I have pre-decided what to do with any extra time that I might receive unexpectedly (e.g., a canceled class) so that I am prepared to act (rather than wasting the extra hour deliberating what I should do with the time). 

This process could be visually conceptualized as the materials needed to complete a piece of art. The intentions are the various tools such as paintbrushes, sponges, or clay and the work of art here is the goal identified during mental contrasting that is completed. This method is useful for established researchers but also gives undergraduate students a tangible way to track beginning goals and see if they come to fruition, whether that be in a career or graduate school.  

#3 Prosocial Mentoring and Networking 

Research excels as a collective team science approach in producing impactful data and providing implications for a wide range of scientific subfields. This kind of research is possible when a researcher has a sufficiently robust social network, a network that can play a crucial role in the development of strong, diverse research skills.  

The National Center for Faculty Development & Diversity Mentoring Map (NCFDD) is a tool available online that can be used to assess personal and academic networks. Although it says “faculty,” this resource is relevant beyond faculty members and scholars. Dr. Schnitker discussed how this map can help promote self-awareness regarding individual access to opportunities, mentors, professional development, and emotional support, highlighting strengths and weaknesses in a social network. Assessing your strengths and weaknesses involves identifying and accepting where you are now. This supports the realization that networking opportunities extend into wide categories. For example, if you are lacking in access to opportunities from internal mentors the map points towards another area to explore, such as peer or external mentors. This map encompasses a prosocial system view ideally built on moral good, virtue development, and generosity.  

Who are the people in your life watering your intellectual desires and goals? How can you foster a system of intellectual giving with virtues such as selflessness, humility, and patience? Proverbs 27:17 states “Iron sharpens iron, as one man sharpens another.” As Christians in the behavioral sciences, we can joyfully take on the responsibility of intellectually sharpening our peers, students, and humanity. Amidst the unknowns and hardships that naturally occur in life and within research, we can rest in the truth that God is not of confusion but of peace, and is faithful to complete the good works he began. (1 Corinthians 14:33, Philippians 1:6)

“Many things are possible for the person who has hope. Even more is possible for the person who has faith. And still more is possible for the person who knows how to love. But everything is possible for the person who practices all three virtues.” 

Brother Lawrence

Call To Action! 

 Considering Dr. Schnitker’s three tips, my invitation to you is to identify areas where you may start to implement them. What areas can you identify in your educational endeavors that could use some polishing? Although we all have different starting points and come to the research playing field with different innate skills, the struggle with fear and perfectionism combined with the need for support is nearly universal. It is in these struggles that I encourage you to combat the negative perceptions of failure, implement goals, and seek out networks that strive to support you with integrity. The significance of social support is clear as humanity does in fact flourish in social contexts, but I also encourage you to not neglect the deep-seated value within yourself. The NCFDD map highlights this value as the “Accountability For What REALLY Matters” component stems back to yourself. The word “accountability” caught my attention, and although sometimes synonymously used with “responsibility” their applications can be distinct. Responsibility is important, but it embodies a stronger consequential focus on the duty to complete rather than giving an account for actions already completed. A challenge for yourself then is to press into this accountability for potential failures or past mistakes and use them as motivation to set goals and seek out networks, all of which will help you in becoming a more well-rounded researcher! 

References  

Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self‐Regulation strategies improve Self‐discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.506003 

McGrath, A. (2014, September 15). Big picture or big gaps? why natural theology is better than intelligent design – article. BioLogos.  

Each semester, the CSHB offers events to develop and empower researchers (students and faculty alike!). Last semester, we had the honor of hosting Dr. Sarah Schnitker, who presented her research and a workshop on tips for succeeding in research. Details about these events, including recordings and slides for her research presentation, are available in the Events tab. Below, the CSHB Student Worker shares her take on one of these events. You’ll see from her reflections that attending and engaging was worth her time. I wanted to share her reflections now because, in a few weeks, we will be hosting our spring speaker, who will present on engaging in multidisciplinary research. You can find details about this presentation on the Events tab. Read on, and I hope to see you on February 9th at our next event!

– Dr. Smith, Director of the Center for the Study of Human Behavior

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How Religiousness and Spirituality Both Facilitate and Undermine the Development of Virtues

As a senior at California Baptist University studying psychology with a personal interest in the intersection of faith and science, I was thrilled to attend Dr. Schnitker’s presentation titled How Religiousness and Spirituality Both Facilitate and Undermine the Development of Virtues. The faith and science intersection is diverse with many dimensions to consider such as worldview, sociocultural context, and biology. Personally, I gravitate towards gaining a deeper understanding of the intangible realm of human cognition, morals, and virtue through the lens of the Bible, while using modern science as a tool to elaborate my applications.   

I will admit that at times this quest has appeared to be almost impossible. How can one scientifically measure the physically unseen elements like morals and virtues? My time at California Baptist University and the growth in my relationship with Jesus Christ have nourished my desire to leverage science and Scripture to understand important questions in our world. The more I trust the Lord to guide my steps, the more my eyes are opened to the possibilities in research to search for truth, using wisdom and tools provided by God to better understand what is plain and what is hidden in this world.  This perspective, consistent with many scholars and Christians, is one that says science and Christianity are fundamentally compatible.   

This compatibility was evident in Dr. Schnitker’s recent presentation for the Center for the Study of Human Behavior (CSHB). Students and faculty listened and engaged with research focused on the science of virtue and character development, a topic of intrinsic value for the Christian. In her research, Dr. Schnitker explores how religion and spirituality can encourage or inhibit virtue development. I was struck by the overlap of her research and the mission statement of the CSHB to use empirical tools available through research to enhance our ability to make a difference in our local and global communities. 

In what follows, I want to highlight what caught my attention most, and what is inspiring my own developing research questions.   

Theological and Theoretical Framework    

  Dr. Schnitker introduced a conceptual framework for understanding the virtue of patience within a New Testament Christian context. This introduction set the foundation for her research as patience was a key virtue addressed in most of the studies. Developed in collaboration with colleagues and theologians at Fuller Seminary, this framework understands patience as a passive experience (Makrothumia) and active expression of strength (Hypomone). These are both significant in that they provide Christians with a cornerstone regarding how we are to practice and develop virtues such as patience. Romans 2:4 illuminates Makrothumia, as we see God’s kindness and forbearance towards sinful mankind. God’s passive expression of patience is the epitome of how we are called to practice and reflect long-suffering during challenges and towards those who might have wronged us. Hypomone can be further understood as one’s active role in persevering despite excruciating circumstances. This is seen in Ephesians 6:18 as Paul exhorts the church in Ephesus to practice an active form of patience despite dealing with persecution, slavery, and spiritual warfare. Dr. Schnitker emphasized that Makrothumia and Hypomone work in harmony throughout her research and can transform aspects of virtues that are stoic or indifferent into distinctly relational virtues such as active and passive suffering with and for the sake of others. 

Expanding upon the New Testament understanding of patience and virtue theory in philosophy, Dr. Schnitker aims to answer questions such as “To what extent are virtues innate or learned?”, “What is the role of the individual or broader society as the source of virtue?”, and “How does one’s worldview system shape their understanding of virtue?”. This framework brought to my attention the call to action that Christians have in nourishing and developing virtues in ourselves and others. In a culture that encourages individuality the concept of imitation can be perceived in a negative light, commonly associated with being unoriginal or fake. God calls us to imitate his character, but we can also imitate and practice the virtues seen in our church leaders and communities. Considering this, Christian scientists can strive to use faith as a foundation to pursue practicing and stewarding virtue as image bearers of God seen in Psalm 86:15 “But you, O Lord, are a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.” 

A significant amount of Dr. Schnitker’s research involves Christian samples and ecological contexts. Therefore, this conceptualization proves to be useful when measuring the involvement of spirituality in virtue development as a major aspect of Christian doctrine involves suffering individually, but also for the sake of loving others. Across the world and especially in Western society rapid advances in technology and medicine have broadly outdated patience and at times can diminish the beauty that can be discovered in learning how to suffer well amidst certain situations. Not every type of suffering has a quick fix nor should it necessarily, but these advances have made it possible to prolong eminent suffering and even numb self-awareness of virtues such as patience, among others.  

 The second conceptual framework that Dr. Schnitker uses in her research concerns the aspect of Characteristic Adaptations, a component of personality theory. Characteristic adaptations include emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, internal motivations, attachments, and schemas which provide habitual patterns to engage in the world. These characteristic adaptations contribute to virtue development across personality spectrums and traits such as grit and bravery. 

I was especially interested in the second aspect, Narrative Identity which provides holistic and transcendent value to psychological and religious or spiritual experiences. This can be useful in gaining knowledge about a wide range of virtues but is notable in the virtue of patience, as suffering and patience are usually not mutually exclusive. Not only does narrative identity assist researchers in collecting significant data, but on an individual level it addresses the question of “why” involved in suffering and even personal choices. Dr. Schnitker’s framework then highlighted three components of religiousness and spirituality that support patience cultivation among other virtues such as generosity or gratitude.   

1. Spiritual Transcendence- The Personal Spiritual Experience  

2. Religious Meaning- Theological or Doctrinal Understanding and Perceptions  

3. Spiritual Practices-  Specifics such as Prayer, Meditation, or Fasting   

These components involve the specific integration of religious and spiritual elements that have the potential to facilitate or undermine virtues- whether they be in a psychological or religious context. These three aspects are crucial in discerning the individual differences among a wide range of religious and spiritual beliefs or practices. I gathered personal inspiration from these specific components as I have an interest in one day exploring the effects of religiousness and spirituality in the facilitation of treatment or potential aggregation of anxiety disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. My prayer is for wisdom to use scientific observations as such in a way that can help me provide epistemic value to complicated areas of human suffering while encouraging the development of virtues despite the challenges.  

“God seeth different abilities and frailties of men, which may move His goodness to be merciful to their different improvements in virtue.”  

William Law

Research Questions   

In the following paragraphs, I want to provide an overview highlighting the studies Dr. Schnitker presented. You can watch the full presentation on the CSHB website for more specifics regarding the seven individual studies, but my goal here is to provide you with key takeaways and significant implications gathered from her three research questions.  

1. Is Change in Religiousness and Spirituality Associated with Change in Virtues?   

Studies one and two focused on the potential change in virtue based on intrinsic religiousness or spirituality. These short-term longitudinal studies and quantitative results indicated that increases in religious belief or spiritual motivations were predictors of positive change in intrapsychic well-being, prosocial virtue development, patience, self-control, and generosity (Schnitker et al., 2014; Schnitker et al., 2020).  The first study examined the role of religious conversion at a Christian summer camp and its potential to foster virtue growth. The second study focused on change in motivations affected by prosocial, spiritual, and fitness contexts. Upon examining marathon runners who raised money for a charity, her data indicated that change in fitness motivations did not correlate with change in virtue, but a change in prosocial and spiritual factors led to more patience, self-control, and generosity during the participants fundraiser experience (Schnitker et al., 2020). These data indicate that change in religiousness and spirituality foster a significant role in the facilitation of virtue change as these components showed the largest effect sizes for virtue growth both short and long term. 

2. Do Virtue Building Activities Differ when Practiced as Secular versus Spiritual Undertakings?   

Studies three, four, and five used experimental measures to examine the potential differences in virtue building if activities are practiced in either a spiritual or secular context (e.g., prayer vs gratitude journaling or non-theistic meditation). Overall, the results highlighted the positive effects of religiousness specifically; and how activities framed in contexts of prayer or spiritual growth, but not their secular equivalents, contributed to increased gratitude, positive effect, and patience development (Schnitker & Richardson, 2019). However, the effect was strongest for patience as two of the three studies demonstrated that the spiritual and religious components had no effect on increased generosity, development of self-control, or emotion regulation (Greenway et al., 2018; Schnitker et al., 2021). This particularly stood out to me, as I would have hypothesized that spiritual practices would not only have increased patience but also facilitated the growth of other virtues with an emphasis on generosity. Data from all three studies supported the notion that virtue-building activities and their outcomes differ when the activity is practiced in either a spiritual or secular context. Although religious and spiritual undertakings were significant facilitators of patience development, these data indicate that virtues such as generosity were not cultivated from the religious and spiritual context. 

3. How do Processes that Relate Spiritually and Virtues Unfold in Daily Life?    

Studies six and seven used intensive sampling methodology to understand how the processes related to virtue development and spirituality evolve in daily life and goal pursuit. Patience was found to be a key facilitator fostering an adaptive goal-pursuit cycle and predicted higher amounts of progress and success rates among different goals, as well as increased meaning (Thomas & Schnitker, 2017). This study emphasized that patience should not always be perceived as being inactive or passive, rather it serves as a positive facilitator in completing a variety of goals based on the situation or reason for waiting. The last study examined the role of Ramadan in a Muslim American population. This was particularly significant, as most of the literature has been concentrated on white Christians living in the United States. The findings supported the theory that religious or spiritual practice and sacred events such as Ramadan can serve as a natural intervention for virtue development in daily life, as the participants’ were found to have individually grown in spiritual connectedness, self-control, and patience. Data collected from this group of studies supported the understanding that daily life routines and goal setting can be facilitated by active patience (Hypomone) and religious contexts that assign higher-order meaning.  

Final Thoughts   

What do these questions and findings mean for you as an individual, a student, or as a current researcher? Maybe you had an existing theoretical understanding of virtues and their individual value but never considered the role that religiousness or spirituality could have in facilitating or undermining their development. Have you considered the implications involved in only approaching or understanding virtue with a purely individualistic mindset? Humans are relational beings that embody a wide-ranging set of personality traits, worldviews, and beliefs. If we are to further understand how and why virtues develop, we need to look at meaningful ecological contexts, and how diverse religious and spiritual practices can potentially strengthen or compromise growth and well-being. Future research should aim to identify specific aspects of religiousness and spirituality within types of religious services, prayers, and community engagement. This will build upon existing research and help make causal inferences on their relationship to change in virtues. It is important to consider one’s personal religious and spiritual beliefs as we strive to help others build character adaptations that serve as a bolster for virtue development, as well as the narrative identities that assign value and meaning.  My personal knowledge regarding the eminent coaction between science and faith was enlivened by the empirical and holistic approach Dr. Schnitker used to measure the unseen and intangible aspects of human life. In what ways did these findings challenge or support your individual stance on using science as a tool to not just gather significant data, but to serve as a catalyst in living out a true and prosperous Christian life? 

An implication to consider is learning how to incorporate a scientific and philosophical understanding of virtue within heavy contexts such as suffering. How can we holistically approach the development of virtues with theological and scientific integrity? Christians can strive to accomplish this by using the truth of scripture to guide their scientific inquiries and to foster empathy during times of suffering, conflict, or disagreement. The world will proclaim that suffering is unfair and while this does hold significance in societal discourse, within a Biblical context we see a different meaning. Suffering is inevitable in the world, as humanity has fallen away from the nature of God. Despite this, we can hold fast to hope, and instead of trying to eradicate difficulty, we can integrate science to help demonstrate the personal and societal value found in virtues. Individuals will always be a distinguished source of gathering meaning, but we cannot limit our understanding to that level as human flourishing is usually seen best among prosocial contexts. Virtue holds intrinsic value, and a multi-dimensional understanding can help us learn to love God, others, and ourselves better in light of the Gospel. 1 Corinthians 13:4 speaks of love as the greatest of all and proclaims, “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy; it does not boast and is not proud.” We can see here that being virtuous is more than just a specific trait but rather an approach to life serving as a vessel to cultivate love demonstrated and bring glory to God.  

References  

Greenway, T. S., Schnitker, S. A., & Shepherd, A. M. (2018). Can prayer increase charitable giving? examining the effects of intercessory prayer, moral intuitions, and theological orientation on generous behavior. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 28(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2017.1406790  

Schnitker, S. A., & Richardson, K. L. (2019). Framing gratitude journaling as prayer amplifies its hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, but not health, benefits. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(4), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1460690  

Schnitker, S. A., Felke, T. J., Barrett, J. L., & Emmons, R. A. (2014). Longitudinal Study of religious and spiritual transformation in adolescents attending Young Life Summer Camp: Assessing the epistemic, intrapsychic, and moral sociability functions of conversion. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035359  

Schnitker, S., Shubert, J., Houltberg, B., & Fernandez, N. (2020). Bidirectional associations across time between entitativity, positive affect, generosity, and religiousness in adolescents training with a religiously affiliated charity Marathon Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 686. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030686

Schnitker, S. A., Shubert, J., Ratchford, J. L., Lumpkin, M., & Houltberg, B. J. (2021). Mixed results on the efficacy of the character me smartphone app to improve self-control, patience, and emotional regulation competencies in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586713  

Thomas, R. M., & Schnitker, S. A. (2017). Modeling the effects of within-person characteristics and goal-level attributes on personal project pursuit over time. Journal of Research in Personality, 69, 206–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.012  

Disproportionality describes the over or under-representation of specific groups in systems relative to their representation in the general population.  Overrepresentation is a form of disproportionality that has existed for African American children and families since the 1960s (Hanna, 2021).  Early in the 1960s, African Americans proportionality in the CWS shifted from ‘under’ to ‘over’ when a federal policy requiring states to provide services to children at risk of abuse or neglect was implemented.  According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2022), African American children and families are overrepresented at every decision point along the child protective services (CPS) and Child Welfare Services (CWS) continuum (Knott & Giwa, 2012, p 220).  Scholars have differing views regarding the causes of overrepresentation.  Many scholars believe systemic and institutional racism are the fundamental causes of the disproportionate representation of African Americans in the CWS (Dettlaff, 2021; Maguire-Jack et al., 2021; Krase, 2013).  

 Despite decades of advocacy to eliminate the problem of African American overrepresentation, the problem is still the reality in the CWS.  African American children represent nearly 14% of the USA’s general child population and 23% of the USA child welfare population (Annie E Casey Foundation, 2021).  One way to understand why overrepresentation persists is to study the impact of strategies to reduce disproportionality.  What is known about efforts, strategies, and interventions to eliminate African American overrepresentation in child welfare?  

Before 1960, states had the discretion to determine eligibility for poor people to receive Aid to Dependent Children (ADC) income support.  Many states opted to deny aid to poor black families due to “unsuitability,” which was determined by the judgment of state workers (Hanna, 2021; Williams-Butler et al., 2020).  Scholars have identified the “Flemming rule” enactment in 1961 as the point when African American families moved from underrepresented to overrepresented.  Williams-Butler et al. (2020) notes that the policy “attempted to administratively correct the discriminatory practice of excluding families who were poor from accessing ADC benefits under the guise of home suitability clauses (p 80).  The Flemming Rule dictated that if states failed to provide services after determining a child was in danger of maltreatment, they would not be eligible for federal reimbursement for funds to support children (Williams-Butler et al., 2020).   In 1972, Giovanonni and Billingsley’s research identified disproportionality and disparities for black families in child welfare (Giovanonni & Billlingsley, 1972). 

Interventions to counteract disproportionality are readily introduced, but there is little evidence of sustained change in the child welfare system (Dettlaff et al., 2020, p 505).  “1 in 5 black children…are documented as victims of maltreatment before age 18, compared to 1 in 10 white children…(Wildeman et al., 2014; Maloney et al., 2017).” Many of the efforts to reduce the number of children in the CWS do not focus on race.  Most family empowerment approaches do not address the bias based on race.  We live in a racialized nation where racial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of poverty, higher rates of criminal system involvement, and higher rates of CWS involvement.  Here are some questions to consider when grappling with whether we believe that African American disproportionality in child welfare is due to racism: 

1. Do we believe that African Americans make more choices that cause them to be impoverished than other races?  

2. Do we believe that African Americans are more inclined to criminality than other races?  

3. Do we believe that African Americans mistreat their children more than other races? 

If we answer ‘yes’ to these questions, we attribute these interrelated social problems to the choices and inclination of Black people.  This means we blame Black people for the social problems without considering the impact of centuries of racism on their present socioeconomic conditions.   

African Americans living in poverty are “over-surveilled” by helping systems.  Dettlaff et al. (2020) contend that over- surveillance leads to “over-reporting” child maltreatment (p 507).  When maltreatment allegations are substantiated and children are removed, parents must meet agency and court requirements to reunify with their children.  This process involves required meetings, court dates, and appointments that are often difficult to keep, putting parents at risk of ‘non-compliance,’ which threatens reunification efforts.  These conditions disempower families who are already vulnerable. 

Scholars contend that some Federal legislation intended to improve conditions for children in the CWS, had an adverse effect on African American children and families (Fitzgerald & Gonzales, 2022; White, 2006).  The Child Abuse Prevention Act (CAPTA) of 1974 established mandated reporting requirements, thereby empowering educational, medical, and social service professionals to report suspected child maltreatment (Burton & Montauban, 2021; A. J. Dettlaff et al., 2020).  Iguanta & Sciolia (2022) advocate ending mandated reporting of child maltreatment due to its disproportionate impact on African American children and families who are overrepresented in substantiated reports of abuse and neglect. 

I recently extracted data from 43 publications which described 18 types of efforts to address African American overrepresentation in the child welfare system.  There is no shortage of efforts, however, the problem persists.  Why have efforts not resulted in sustained change?  The persistent overrepresentation of African Americans in the CWS amid the underrepresentation of white children is too significant for comfort.  Amid the literature on this social problem, there is ongoing debate about the reasons for African American overrepresentation.  Dettlaff & Boyd (2020) argue that the debate hinders efforts to eliminate the problem because scholars do not agree on the most effective ways to intervene.  Hence, though there are many interventions, there is not enough progress.  

References 

Burton, A. O., & Montauban, A. (2021). TOWARD COMMUNITY CONTROL OF CHILD WELFARE FUNDING: REPEAL THE CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT ACT AND DELINK CHILD PROTECTION FROM FAMILY WELL-BEING. In COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF RACE AND LAW (Vol. 11, Issue 3). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3905041 

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2022). Child Welfare Practice to Address Racial Disproportionality and Disparity. https://www.childwelfare.gov 

Dettlaff, A. (Editor). (2021). Child Maltreatment: Contemporary Issues in Research and Policy 11 Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System. http://www.springer.com/series/8863 

Dettlaff, A. J., & Boyd, R. (2020). Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System: Why Do They Exist, and What Can Be Done to Address Them? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 253–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220980329 

Dettlaff, A. J., Weber, K., Pendleton, M., Boyd, R., Bettencourt, B., & Burton, L. (2020). It is not a broken system, it is a system that needs to be broken: the upEND movement to abolish the child welfare system. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 14(5), 500–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2020.1814542 

Fitzgerald, M., & Gonzales, K. (2022). Advocates and Officials Press Case for Overhauling Key Adoption and Child Welfare Law. 

Giovanonni, J., & Billlingsley, A. (1972). Children of the Storm Black Children and White Child Welfare. 1–246. 

Hanna, M. D. (2021). Child Welfare System Issues as Explanatory Factors for Racial Disproportionality and Disparities. In A. Dettlaff (Ed.), Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System (11th ed., pp. 177–197). Child Maltrreatment. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54314-3_10 

Iguanta, G., & Sciolia, C. (2022). Time Doesn’t Heal All Wounds_ A Call to End Mandated Reporting Laws. Columbia Social Work Review, XIX, 116–137. 

Knott, T., & Giwa, S. (2012). African American disproportionality within CPS and disparate access to support services: Review and critical analysis of the literature. In Residential Treatment for Children and Youth (Vol. 29, Issue 3, pp. 219–230). https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2012.697434 

Krase, K. S. (2013). Differences in Racially Disproportionate Reporting of Child Maltreatment Across Report Sources. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 7(4), 351–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2013.798763 

Maguire-Jack, K., Korbin, J. E., Perzynski, A., Coulton, C., Font, S. A., & Spilsbury, J. C. (2021). How Place Matters in Child Maltreatment Disparities: Geographical Context as an Explanatory Factor for Racial Disproportionality and Disparities (pp. 199–212). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54314-3_11 

Maloney, T., Jiang, N., Putnam-Hornstein, E., Dalton, E., & Vaithianathan, R. (2017). Black–White Differences in Child Maltreatment Reports and Foster Care Placements: A Statistical Decomposition Using Linked Administrative Data. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 21(3), 414–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-016-2242-3 

Puzzanchera, C., Smith, J., Taylor, M., & Kang, W. (2022). Disproportionality Rates for Children of Color in Foster Care Dashboard. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. 

White, C. (2006). Federally Mandated Destruction of the Black Family: The Adoption and Safe Families Act. 

Wildeman, C., Emanuel, N., Leventhal, J. M., Putnam-Hornstein, E., Waldfogel, J., & Lee, H. (2014). The prevalence of confirmed maltreatment among US children, 2004 to 2011. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(8), 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.410 

Williams-Butler, A., Golden, K. E., Mendez, A., & Stevens, B. (2020). Intersectionality and Child Welfare Policy. Source: Child Welfare, 98(4), 75–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/48623697