Each semester, the CSHB offers events to develop and empower researchers (students and faculty alike!). Last semester, we had the honor of hosting Dr. Sarah Schnitker, who presented her research and a workshop on tips for succeeding in research. Details about these events, including recordings and slides for her research presentation, are available in the Events tab. Below, the CSHB Student Worker shares her take on one of these events. You’ll see from her reflections that attending and engaging was worth her time. I wanted to share her reflections now because, in a few weeks, we will be hosting our spring speaker, who will present on engaging in multidisciplinary research. You can find details about this presentation on the Events tab. Read on, and I hope to see you on February 9th at our next event!

– Dr. Smith, Director of the Center for the Study of Human Behavior

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How to Succeed In Research

Most people have specific interests of some sort, whether that be in education, social systems, art, science or any domain of life. Personal goals and topic focus may vary between individuals, but the innate desire to search for solutions to tough questions, probe the unknown, and make a positive contribution to the world serves as a unifying element in becoming…. a researcher. The word research on its own might be enough to instill anxiety or maybe even a sense of impossibility. Stressful emotions will be inevitable at times, especially throughout pursuing higher education or while learning new skills—like conducting research.  

However, many students, including myself, might experience a prolonged intellectual roadblock as a result of these emotions, a roadblock that encourages the avoidance of research rather than a courageous engagement with research. My prayer this year is to ask God for a humble heart that is courageous but not proud, one in which fear does not stagnate my motivation. The quest and goal for myself as an undergraduate psychology student is to press into all the feelings- the good, the bad, and the ugly.  

“Courage is resistance to fear, mastery of fear — not absence of fear.” 

Mark Twain

Dr. Schnitker of Baylor University presented three tools that can be used to combat the fear of failure, anxiety, and remaining stagnant in the pursuit of research. She highlighted the epistemic value of learning how to manage rejection well, implement intentions, and evaluate social networks which all have a role in the development of becoming a more successful researcher. And trust me, she knows a thing or two about being a successful researcher! Her workshop emphasizes a highly inclusive and practical approach to help evaluate common research habits that could lead to intellectual roadblocks such as anxiety or procrastination.  Dr. Schnitker carefully pointed out that these skills do not always guarantee a desired outcome, but they will orient the developing researcher in a way that is healthy and, ultimately, more productive.  

#1 Using Rejection and Failure as Motivation 

 So, what was the first thing Dr. Schnitker mentioned as a tip to succeed in research? The learned skill of using rejection and failure as a tool for motivation. Throughout her career, Dr. Schnitker has procured more than ten million dollars in grant funding and has been successfully published in multiple academic journals. To some, this may seem unattainable or beyond their intellectual caliber, but she asserts that persistence and normalization of rejection are aspects among many that contribute to these success rates and endowments. She fosters the idea of finding value in rejection and advocates for a shift from viewing it as a failure to a proactive moldable approach across a wide range of intellectual capacities. The primary difference between a scholar who has received a lot of grant funding or published a lot of papers and one who has not, according to Dr. Schnitker, is that the former has submitted a lot more applications (and thus received more rejections and failures).  

As an unhealthy perfectionist at times, I resonated with this tip. At times I have become so worried and fearful of rejection that I essentially rob myself of the opportunity to even fail at all. The absence of opportunities to fail then develops a proxy that inhibits opportunity for growth.  As an undergraduate senior psychology student, I am learning how to rest better in certain losses knowing that God can turn them into wins. The painful emotions that can become embodied after academic or personal life rejection are heavy, but despite this we see the Psalmist declare “It was good for me to be afflicted, that I might learn your statutes”- Psalm 119:71 

“Multiple rejections do not indicate poor product or low competency”

Dr. Sarah Schnitker

#2 Mental Contrasting and Implementation Intentions 

The second tip stemmed from research done on mental contrasting and setting implementation intentions (Duckworth et al., 2011). The focus here is to automatize the pursuit of goals which can prove to be useful in combating negative emotions such as stress and anxiety that may accompany research and deadlines. The first step is to engage in mental contrasting by conceptualizing a large-scale goal such as choosing a research topic focus for graduate school or maybe completing and defending a dissertation. Next, assess what factors might be preventing your pursuit or completion of the goal, as this will encourage active movement instead of passive dwelling. Implementation intentions should be framed in an “if-then” form to provide flexibility and accommodation. For example, if I need more time to work on a project, I could set up an intention that says, “If one of my classes is canceled, I will use that time to work on my research paper.” In addition to the time I have “regularly scheduled” to work on this project, I have pre-decided what to do with any extra time that I might receive unexpectedly (e.g., a canceled class) so that I am prepared to act (rather than wasting the extra hour deliberating what I should do with the time). 

This process could be visually conceptualized as the materials needed to complete a piece of art. The intentions are the various tools such as paintbrushes, sponges, or clay and the work of art here is the goal identified during mental contrasting that is completed. This method is useful for established researchers but also gives undergraduate students a tangible way to track beginning goals and see if they come to fruition, whether that be in a career or graduate school.  

#3 Prosocial Mentoring and Networking 

Research excels as a collective team science approach in producing impactful data and providing implications for a wide range of scientific subfields. This kind of research is possible when a researcher has a sufficiently robust social network, a network that can play a crucial role in the development of strong, diverse research skills.  

The National Center for Faculty Development & Diversity Mentoring Map (NCFDD) is a tool available online that can be used to assess personal and academic networks. Although it says “faculty,” this resource is relevant beyond faculty members and scholars. Dr. Schnitker discussed how this map can help promote self-awareness regarding individual access to opportunities, mentors, professional development, and emotional support, highlighting strengths and weaknesses in a social network. Assessing your strengths and weaknesses involves identifying and accepting where you are now. This supports the realization that networking opportunities extend into wide categories. For example, if you are lacking in access to opportunities from internal mentors the map points towards another area to explore, such as peer or external mentors. This map encompasses a prosocial system view ideally built on moral good, virtue development, and generosity.  

Who are the people in your life watering your intellectual desires and goals? How can you foster a system of intellectual giving with virtues such as selflessness, humility, and patience? Proverbs 27:17 states “Iron sharpens iron, as one man sharpens another.” As Christians in the behavioral sciences, we can joyfully take on the responsibility of intellectually sharpening our peers, students, and humanity. Amidst the unknowns and hardships that naturally occur in life and within research, we can rest in the truth that God is not of confusion but of peace, and is faithful to complete the good works he began. (1 Corinthians 14:33, Philippians 1:6)

“Many things are possible for the person who has hope. Even more is possible for the person who has faith. And still more is possible for the person who knows how to love. But everything is possible for the person who practices all three virtues.” 

Brother Lawrence

Call To Action! 

 Considering Dr. Schnitker’s three tips, my invitation to you is to identify areas where you may start to implement them. What areas can you identify in your educational endeavors that could use some polishing? Although we all have different starting points and come to the research playing field with different innate skills, the struggle with fear and perfectionism combined with the need for support is nearly universal. It is in these struggles that I encourage you to combat the negative perceptions of failure, implement goals, and seek out networks that strive to support you with integrity. The significance of social support is clear as humanity does in fact flourish in social contexts, but I also encourage you to not neglect the deep-seated value within yourself. The NCFDD map highlights this value as the “Accountability For What REALLY Matters” component stems back to yourself. The word “accountability” caught my attention, and although sometimes synonymously used with “responsibility” their applications can be distinct. Responsibility is important, but it embodies a stronger consequential focus on the duty to complete rather than giving an account for actions already completed. A challenge for yourself then is to press into this accountability for potential failures or past mistakes and use them as motivation to set goals and seek out networks, all of which will help you in becoming a more well-rounded researcher! 

References  

Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self‐Regulation strategies improve Self‐discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.506003 

McGrath, A. (2014, September 15). Big picture or big gaps? why natural theology is better than intelligent design – article. BioLogos.  

Each semester, the CSHB offers events to develop and empower researchers (students and faculty alike!). Last semester, we had the honor of hosting Dr. Sarah Schnitker, who presented her research and a workshop on tips for succeeding in research. Details about these events, including recordings and slides for her research presentation, are available in the Events tab. Below, the CSHB Student Worker shares her take on one of these events. You’ll see from her reflections that attending and engaging was worth her time. I wanted to share her reflections now because, in a few weeks, we will be hosting our spring speaker, who will present on engaging in multidisciplinary research. You can find details about this presentation on the Events tab. Read on, and I hope to see you on February 9th at our next event!

– Dr. Smith, Director of the Center for the Study of Human Behavior

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How Religiousness and Spirituality Both Facilitate and Undermine the Development of Virtues

As a senior at California Baptist University studying psychology with a personal interest in the intersection of faith and science, I was thrilled to attend Dr. Schnitker’s presentation titled How Religiousness and Spirituality Both Facilitate and Undermine the Development of Virtues. The faith and science intersection is diverse with many dimensions to consider such as worldview, sociocultural context, and biology. Personally, I gravitate towards gaining a deeper understanding of the intangible realm of human cognition, morals, and virtue through the lens of the Bible, while using modern science as a tool to elaborate my applications.   

I will admit that at times this quest has appeared to be almost impossible. How can one scientifically measure the physically unseen elements like morals and virtues? My time at California Baptist University and the growth in my relationship with Jesus Christ have nourished my desire to leverage science and Scripture to understand important questions in our world. The more I trust the Lord to guide my steps, the more my eyes are opened to the possibilities in research to search for truth, using wisdom and tools provided by God to better understand what is plain and what is hidden in this world.  This perspective, consistent with many scholars and Christians, is one that says science and Christianity are fundamentally compatible.   

This compatibility was evident in Dr. Schnitker’s recent presentation for the Center for the Study of Human Behavior (CSHB). Students and faculty listened and engaged with research focused on the science of virtue and character development, a topic of intrinsic value for the Christian. In her research, Dr. Schnitker explores how religion and spirituality can encourage or inhibit virtue development. I was struck by the overlap of her research and the mission statement of the CSHB to use empirical tools available through research to enhance our ability to make a difference in our local and global communities. 

In what follows, I want to highlight what caught my attention most, and what is inspiring my own developing research questions.   

Theological and Theoretical Framework    

  Dr. Schnitker introduced a conceptual framework for understanding the virtue of patience within a New Testament Christian context. This introduction set the foundation for her research as patience was a key virtue addressed in most of the studies. Developed in collaboration with colleagues and theologians at Fuller Seminary, this framework understands patience as a passive experience (Makrothumia) and active expression of strength (Hypomone). These are both significant in that they provide Christians with a cornerstone regarding how we are to practice and develop virtues such as patience. Romans 2:4 illuminates Makrothumia, as we see God’s kindness and forbearance towards sinful mankind. God’s passive expression of patience is the epitome of how we are called to practice and reflect long-suffering during challenges and towards those who might have wronged us. Hypomone can be further understood as one’s active role in persevering despite excruciating circumstances. This is seen in Ephesians 6:18 as Paul exhorts the church in Ephesus to practice an active form of patience despite dealing with persecution, slavery, and spiritual warfare. Dr. Schnitker emphasized that Makrothumia and Hypomone work in harmony throughout her research and can transform aspects of virtues that are stoic or indifferent into distinctly relational virtues such as active and passive suffering with and for the sake of others. 

Expanding upon the New Testament understanding of patience and virtue theory in philosophy, Dr. Schnitker aims to answer questions such as “To what extent are virtues innate or learned?”, “What is the role of the individual or broader society as the source of virtue?”, and “How does one’s worldview system shape their understanding of virtue?”. This framework brought to my attention the call to action that Christians have in nourishing and developing virtues in ourselves and others. In a culture that encourages individuality the concept of imitation can be perceived in a negative light, commonly associated with being unoriginal or fake. God calls us to imitate his character, but we can also imitate and practice the virtues seen in our church leaders and communities. Considering this, Christian scientists can strive to use faith as a foundation to pursue practicing and stewarding virtue as image bearers of God seen in Psalm 86:15 “But you, O Lord, are a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.” 

A significant amount of Dr. Schnitker’s research involves Christian samples and ecological contexts. Therefore, this conceptualization proves to be useful when measuring the involvement of spirituality in virtue development as a major aspect of Christian doctrine involves suffering individually, but also for the sake of loving others. Across the world and especially in Western society rapid advances in technology and medicine have broadly outdated patience and at times can diminish the beauty that can be discovered in learning how to suffer well amidst certain situations. Not every type of suffering has a quick fix nor should it necessarily, but these advances have made it possible to prolong eminent suffering and even numb self-awareness of virtues such as patience, among others.  

 The second conceptual framework that Dr. Schnitker uses in her research concerns the aspect of Characteristic Adaptations, a component of personality theory. Characteristic adaptations include emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, internal motivations, attachments, and schemas which provide habitual patterns to engage in the world. These characteristic adaptations contribute to virtue development across personality spectrums and traits such as grit and bravery. 

I was especially interested in the second aspect, Narrative Identity which provides holistic and transcendent value to psychological and religious or spiritual experiences. This can be useful in gaining knowledge about a wide range of virtues but is notable in the virtue of patience, as suffering and patience are usually not mutually exclusive. Not only does narrative identity assist researchers in collecting significant data, but on an individual level it addresses the question of “why” involved in suffering and even personal choices. Dr. Schnitker’s framework then highlighted three components of religiousness and spirituality that support patience cultivation among other virtues such as generosity or gratitude.   

1. Spiritual Transcendence- The Personal Spiritual Experience  

2. Religious Meaning- Theological or Doctrinal Understanding and Perceptions  

3. Spiritual Practices-  Specifics such as Prayer, Meditation, or Fasting   

These components involve the specific integration of religious and spiritual elements that have the potential to facilitate or undermine virtues- whether they be in a psychological or religious context. These three aspects are crucial in discerning the individual differences among a wide range of religious and spiritual beliefs or practices. I gathered personal inspiration from these specific components as I have an interest in one day exploring the effects of religiousness and spirituality in the facilitation of treatment or potential aggregation of anxiety disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. My prayer is for wisdom to use scientific observations as such in a way that can help me provide epistemic value to complicated areas of human suffering while encouraging the development of virtues despite the challenges.  

“God seeth different abilities and frailties of men, which may move His goodness to be merciful to their different improvements in virtue.”  

William Law

Research Questions   

In the following paragraphs, I want to provide an overview highlighting the studies Dr. Schnitker presented. You can watch the full presentation on the CSHB website for more specifics regarding the seven individual studies, but my goal here is to provide you with key takeaways and significant implications gathered from her three research questions.  

1. Is Change in Religiousness and Spirituality Associated with Change in Virtues?   

Studies one and two focused on the potential change in virtue based on intrinsic religiousness or spirituality. These short-term longitudinal studies and quantitative results indicated that increases in religious belief or spiritual motivations were predictors of positive change in intrapsychic well-being, prosocial virtue development, patience, self-control, and generosity (Schnitker et al., 2014; Schnitker et al., 2020).  The first study examined the role of religious conversion at a Christian summer camp and its potential to foster virtue growth. The second study focused on change in motivations affected by prosocial, spiritual, and fitness contexts. Upon examining marathon runners who raised money for a charity, her data indicated that change in fitness motivations did not correlate with change in virtue, but a change in prosocial and spiritual factors led to more patience, self-control, and generosity during the participants fundraiser experience (Schnitker et al., 2020). These data indicate that change in religiousness and spirituality foster a significant role in the facilitation of virtue change as these components showed the largest effect sizes for virtue growth both short and long term. 

2. Do Virtue Building Activities Differ when Practiced as Secular versus Spiritual Undertakings?   

Studies three, four, and five used experimental measures to examine the potential differences in virtue building if activities are practiced in either a spiritual or secular context (e.g., prayer vs gratitude journaling or non-theistic meditation). Overall, the results highlighted the positive effects of religiousness specifically; and how activities framed in contexts of prayer or spiritual growth, but not their secular equivalents, contributed to increased gratitude, positive effect, and patience development (Schnitker & Richardson, 2019). However, the effect was strongest for patience as two of the three studies demonstrated that the spiritual and religious components had no effect on increased generosity, development of self-control, or emotion regulation (Greenway et al., 2018; Schnitker et al., 2021). This particularly stood out to me, as I would have hypothesized that spiritual practices would not only have increased patience but also facilitated the growth of other virtues with an emphasis on generosity. Data from all three studies supported the notion that virtue-building activities and their outcomes differ when the activity is practiced in either a spiritual or secular context. Although religious and spiritual undertakings were significant facilitators of patience development, these data indicate that virtues such as generosity were not cultivated from the religious and spiritual context. 

3. How do Processes that Relate Spiritually and Virtues Unfold in Daily Life?    

Studies six and seven used intensive sampling methodology to understand how the processes related to virtue development and spirituality evolve in daily life and goal pursuit. Patience was found to be a key facilitator fostering an adaptive goal-pursuit cycle and predicted higher amounts of progress and success rates among different goals, as well as increased meaning (Thomas & Schnitker, 2017). This study emphasized that patience should not always be perceived as being inactive or passive, rather it serves as a positive facilitator in completing a variety of goals based on the situation or reason for waiting. The last study examined the role of Ramadan in a Muslim American population. This was particularly significant, as most of the literature has been concentrated on white Christians living in the United States. The findings supported the theory that religious or spiritual practice and sacred events such as Ramadan can serve as a natural intervention for virtue development in daily life, as the participants’ were found to have individually grown in spiritual connectedness, self-control, and patience. Data collected from this group of studies supported the understanding that daily life routines and goal setting can be facilitated by active patience (Hypomone) and religious contexts that assign higher-order meaning.  

Final Thoughts   

What do these questions and findings mean for you as an individual, a student, or as a current researcher? Maybe you had an existing theoretical understanding of virtues and their individual value but never considered the role that religiousness or spirituality could have in facilitating or undermining their development. Have you considered the implications involved in only approaching or understanding virtue with a purely individualistic mindset? Humans are relational beings that embody a wide-ranging set of personality traits, worldviews, and beliefs. If we are to further understand how and why virtues develop, we need to look at meaningful ecological contexts, and how diverse religious and spiritual practices can potentially strengthen or compromise growth and well-being. Future research should aim to identify specific aspects of religiousness and spirituality within types of religious services, prayers, and community engagement. This will build upon existing research and help make causal inferences on their relationship to change in virtues. It is important to consider one’s personal religious and spiritual beliefs as we strive to help others build character adaptations that serve as a bolster for virtue development, as well as the narrative identities that assign value and meaning.  My personal knowledge regarding the eminent coaction between science and faith was enlivened by the empirical and holistic approach Dr. Schnitker used to measure the unseen and intangible aspects of human life. In what ways did these findings challenge or support your individual stance on using science as a tool to not just gather significant data, but to serve as a catalyst in living out a true and prosperous Christian life? 

An implication to consider is learning how to incorporate a scientific and philosophical understanding of virtue within heavy contexts such as suffering. How can we holistically approach the development of virtues with theological and scientific integrity? Christians can strive to accomplish this by using the truth of scripture to guide their scientific inquiries and to foster empathy during times of suffering, conflict, or disagreement. The world will proclaim that suffering is unfair and while this does hold significance in societal discourse, within a Biblical context we see a different meaning. Suffering is inevitable in the world, as humanity has fallen away from the nature of God. Despite this, we can hold fast to hope, and instead of trying to eradicate difficulty, we can integrate science to help demonstrate the personal and societal value found in virtues. Individuals will always be a distinguished source of gathering meaning, but we cannot limit our understanding to that level as human flourishing is usually seen best among prosocial contexts. Virtue holds intrinsic value, and a multi-dimensional understanding can help us learn to love God, others, and ourselves better in light of the Gospel. 1 Corinthians 13:4 speaks of love as the greatest of all and proclaims, “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy; it does not boast and is not proud.” We can see here that being virtuous is more than just a specific trait but rather an approach to life serving as a vessel to cultivate love demonstrated and bring glory to God.  

References  

Greenway, T. S., Schnitker, S. A., & Shepherd, A. M. (2018). Can prayer increase charitable giving? examining the effects of intercessory prayer, moral intuitions, and theological orientation on generous behavior. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 28(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2017.1406790  

Schnitker, S. A., & Richardson, K. L. (2019). Framing gratitude journaling as prayer amplifies its hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, but not health, benefits. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(4), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1460690  

Schnitker, S. A., Felke, T. J., Barrett, J. L., & Emmons, R. A. (2014). Longitudinal Study of religious and spiritual transformation in adolescents attending Young Life Summer Camp: Assessing the epistemic, intrapsychic, and moral sociability functions of conversion. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 6(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035359  

Schnitker, S., Shubert, J., Houltberg, B., & Fernandez, N. (2020). Bidirectional associations across time between entitativity, positive affect, generosity, and religiousness in adolescents training with a religiously affiliated charity Marathon Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 686. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030686

Schnitker, S. A., Shubert, J., Ratchford, J. L., Lumpkin, M., & Houltberg, B. J. (2021). Mixed results on the efficacy of the character me smartphone app to improve self-control, patience, and emotional regulation competencies in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586713  

Thomas, R. M., & Schnitker, S. A. (2017). Modeling the effects of within-person characteristics and goal-level attributes on personal project pursuit over time. Journal of Research in Personality, 69, 206–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.012  

Disproportionality describes the over or under-representation of specific groups in systems relative to their representation in the general population.  Overrepresentation is a form of disproportionality that has existed for African American children and families since the 1960s (Hanna, 2021).  Early in the 1960s, African Americans proportionality in the CWS shifted from ‘under’ to ‘over’ when a federal policy requiring states to provide services to children at risk of abuse or neglect was implemented.  According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2022), African American children and families are overrepresented at every decision point along the child protective services (CPS) and Child Welfare Services (CWS) continuum (Knott & Giwa, 2012, p 220).  Scholars have differing views regarding the causes of overrepresentation.  Many scholars believe systemic and institutional racism are the fundamental causes of the disproportionate representation of African Americans in the CWS (Dettlaff, 2021; Maguire-Jack et al., 2021; Krase, 2013).  

 Despite decades of advocacy to eliminate the problem of African American overrepresentation, the problem is still the reality in the CWS.  African American children represent nearly 14% of the USA’s general child population and 23% of the USA child welfare population (Annie E Casey Foundation, 2021).  One way to understand why overrepresentation persists is to study the impact of strategies to reduce disproportionality.  What is known about efforts, strategies, and interventions to eliminate African American overrepresentation in child welfare?  

Before 1960, states had the discretion to determine eligibility for poor people to receive Aid to Dependent Children (ADC) income support.  Many states opted to deny aid to poor black families due to “unsuitability,” which was determined by the judgment of state workers (Hanna, 2021; Williams-Butler et al., 2020).  Scholars have identified the “Flemming rule” enactment in 1961 as the point when African American families moved from underrepresented to overrepresented.  Williams-Butler et al. (2020) notes that the policy “attempted to administratively correct the discriminatory practice of excluding families who were poor from accessing ADC benefits under the guise of home suitability clauses (p 80).  The Flemming Rule dictated that if states failed to provide services after determining a child was in danger of maltreatment, they would not be eligible for federal reimbursement for funds to support children (Williams-Butler et al., 2020).   In 1972, Giovanonni and Billingsley’s research identified disproportionality and disparities for black families in child welfare (Giovanonni & Billlingsley, 1972). 

Interventions to counteract disproportionality are readily introduced, but there is little evidence of sustained change in the child welfare system (Dettlaff et al., 2020, p 505).  “1 in 5 black children…are documented as victims of maltreatment before age 18, compared to 1 in 10 white children…(Wildeman et al., 2014; Maloney et al., 2017).” Many of the efforts to reduce the number of children in the CWS do not focus on race.  Most family empowerment approaches do not address the bias based on race.  We live in a racialized nation where racial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of poverty, higher rates of criminal system involvement, and higher rates of CWS involvement.  Here are some questions to consider when grappling with whether we believe that African American disproportionality in child welfare is due to racism: 

1. Do we believe that African Americans make more choices that cause them to be impoverished than other races?  

2. Do we believe that African Americans are more inclined to criminality than other races?  

3. Do we believe that African Americans mistreat their children more than other races? 

If we answer ‘yes’ to these questions, we attribute these interrelated social problems to the choices and inclination of Black people.  This means we blame Black people for the social problems without considering the impact of centuries of racism on their present socioeconomic conditions.   

African Americans living in poverty are “over-surveilled” by helping systems.  Dettlaff et al. (2020) contend that over- surveillance leads to “over-reporting” child maltreatment (p 507).  When maltreatment allegations are substantiated and children are removed, parents must meet agency and court requirements to reunify with their children.  This process involves required meetings, court dates, and appointments that are often difficult to keep, putting parents at risk of ‘non-compliance,’ which threatens reunification efforts.  These conditions disempower families who are already vulnerable. 

Scholars contend that some Federal legislation intended to improve conditions for children in the CWS, had an adverse effect on African American children and families (Fitzgerald & Gonzales, 2022; White, 2006).  The Child Abuse Prevention Act (CAPTA) of 1974 established mandated reporting requirements, thereby empowering educational, medical, and social service professionals to report suspected child maltreatment (Burton & Montauban, 2021; A. J. Dettlaff et al., 2020).  Iguanta & Sciolia (2022) advocate ending mandated reporting of child maltreatment due to its disproportionate impact on African American children and families who are overrepresented in substantiated reports of abuse and neglect. 

I recently extracted data from 43 publications which described 18 types of efforts to address African American overrepresentation in the child welfare system.  There is no shortage of efforts, however, the problem persists.  Why have efforts not resulted in sustained change?  The persistent overrepresentation of African Americans in the CWS amid the underrepresentation of white children is too significant for comfort.  Amid the literature on this social problem, there is ongoing debate about the reasons for African American overrepresentation.  Dettlaff & Boyd (2020) argue that the debate hinders efforts to eliminate the problem because scholars do not agree on the most effective ways to intervene.  Hence, though there are many interventions, there is not enough progress.  

References 

Burton, A. O., & Montauban, A. (2021). TOWARD COMMUNITY CONTROL OF CHILD WELFARE FUNDING: REPEAL THE CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT ACT AND DELINK CHILD PROTECTION FROM FAMILY WELL-BEING. In COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF RACE AND LAW (Vol. 11, Issue 3). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3905041 

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2022). Child Welfare Practice to Address Racial Disproportionality and Disparity. https://www.childwelfare.gov 

Dettlaff, A. (Editor). (2021). Child Maltreatment: Contemporary Issues in Research and Policy 11 Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System. http://www.springer.com/series/8863 

Dettlaff, A. J., & Boyd, R. (2020). Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System: Why Do They Exist, and What Can Be Done to Address Them? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 253–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220980329 

Dettlaff, A. J., Weber, K., Pendleton, M., Boyd, R., Bettencourt, B., & Burton, L. (2020). It is not a broken system, it is a system that needs to be broken: the upEND movement to abolish the child welfare system. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 14(5), 500–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2020.1814542 

Fitzgerald, M., & Gonzales, K. (2022). Advocates and Officials Press Case for Overhauling Key Adoption and Child Welfare Law. 

Giovanonni, J., & Billlingsley, A. (1972). Children of the Storm Black Children and White Child Welfare. 1–246. 

Hanna, M. D. (2021). Child Welfare System Issues as Explanatory Factors for Racial Disproportionality and Disparities. In A. Dettlaff (Ed.), Racial Disproportionality and Disparities in the Child Welfare System (11th ed., pp. 177–197). Child Maltrreatment. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54314-3_10 

Iguanta, G., & Sciolia, C. (2022). Time Doesn’t Heal All Wounds_ A Call to End Mandated Reporting Laws. Columbia Social Work Review, XIX, 116–137. 

Knott, T., & Giwa, S. (2012). African American disproportionality within CPS and disparate access to support services: Review and critical analysis of the literature. In Residential Treatment for Children and Youth (Vol. 29, Issue 3, pp. 219–230). https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2012.697434 

Krase, K. S. (2013). Differences in Racially Disproportionate Reporting of Child Maltreatment Across Report Sources. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 7(4), 351–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2013.798763 

Maguire-Jack, K., Korbin, J. E., Perzynski, A., Coulton, C., Font, S. A., & Spilsbury, J. C. (2021). How Place Matters in Child Maltreatment Disparities: Geographical Context as an Explanatory Factor for Racial Disproportionality and Disparities (pp. 199–212). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54314-3_11 

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Do you know what your purpose in life is? If not, don’t worry – you’re not alone. A lot of people don’t know what their life’s mission is. But that doesn’t mean it’s impossible to find out. This blog post will discuss how to discover your purpose in life and start living a more fulfilling existence. So, if you’re ready to find out what makes you truly happy, keep reading! 

In the book, The Alchemist, Paulo Coelho tells the story of a shepherd boy named Santiago who yearns to travel in search of a worldly treasure as extravagant as any ever found. Although he knows that such a quest may mean leaving the love of his life behind, Santiago feels drawn to follow his “Personal Legend” despite the challenges and sacrifices it will undoubtedly entail. As the boy begins his journey, he meets an array of characters—some of whom teach him valuable lessons, while others attempt to dissuade him from continuing on his quest. Ultimately, Santiago succeeds in finding his treasure and true purpose in life. 

The story of Santiago reminds us that the journey to discovering our purpose is often fraught with difficulty and heartache. Nevertheless, those brave enough to embark on this journey are invariably rewarded with a great treasure: the knowledge that they are living their lives according to their deepest desires and highest aspirations. 

Finding Your Purpose 

Although the concept of “purpose” is often spoken about in spiritual or religious contexts, it’s important to remember that everyone has a unique sense of purpose—regardless of whether or not they subscribe to any particular faith tradition. In fact, some of the most successful and fulfilled people have taken the time to reflect on what brings them meaning and satisfaction and have made a conscious decision to align their lives with those things. 

Of course, this is easier said than done. It can be difficult to identify our deepest desires, let alone figure out how to turn them into reality. If you’re having trouble getting started, here are a few questions you can ask yourself: 

– What makes me feel most alive?  

– What am I most passionate about?  

– What am I really good at?  

– What do I deeply care about?  

– What contribution do I want to make in the world?  

– Whose life do I want to touch in a positive way?  

– How do I want to be remembered when I’m gone?  

Answering these questions isn’t easy, but it’s worth taking the time to do so. Once you’ve identified your purpose, you can begin making small changes that will help you move closer to living it out daily. And while there will inevitably be challenges and setbacks along the way, remember that every step forward is a step in the right direction.  

Conclusion:  

The journey toward discovering your purpose can be challenging but ultimately rewarding.  

By connecting with what brings you fulfillment and satisfaction, you can begin making small changes to help you live out your purpose daily. Remember, every journey begins with a single step. 

Coelho, P. (1995). The alchemist. Thorsons.